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Range

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The range is one of the measures of variation. It can be defined as the difference between a dataset's highest and lowest values. For example, in the study of seven 16-ounce soda cans, the filled volume of soda was measured, thus producing the following amount (in ounces) of soda:
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Consider a cylindrical shaft with a length denoted by L and a consistent cross-sectional radius referred to as r. This shaft undergoes a torque at the free end. The highest shearing strain within the shaft is directly proportional to the twist angle and the radial distance from the shaft axis. When the shaft behaves elastically, this shearing strain can be articulated using variables such as the applied torque, radial distance, the polar moment of inertia, and the modulus of rigidity. By...
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Consider a scenario where a circular shaft is subject to torque that remains within the boundaries of Hooke's Law, avoiding any permanent deformation. So, the formula for shearing strain is revisited. This formula is multiplied by the modulus of rigidity, and then Hooke's Law for the shearing stress and strain is applied. As a result, the equation for shearing stress in a shaft can be derived.
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Dolphin echolocation behaviour during active long-range target approaches.

Michael Ladegaard1, Jason Mulsow2, Dorian S Houser2

  • 1Zoophysiology, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark michael.ladegaard@bios.au.dk.

The Journal of Experimental Biology
|November 28, 2018
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Dolphins adjust their echolocation clicks for free swimming at longer distances, using click packets instead of a fixed click-echo-click pattern. This behavior aids in target detection and range estimation in dynamic environments.

Keywords:
BiosonarClick packetDtagInterclick intervalSource levelToothed whale

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Area of Science:

  • Marine Biology
  • Bioacoustics
  • Animal Behavior

Background:

  • Toothed whales like dolphins use echolocation for navigation and foraging.
  • The click-echo-click paradigm, where echolocation clicks are timed with returning echoes, is thought to be crucial for range estimation.
  • Previous studies primarily focused on stationary dolphins and shorter ranges.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate dolphin echolocation strategies in free-swimming conditions at extended target ranges (up to 400m).
  • To determine if dolphins maintain the click-echo-click paradigm at longer distances or employ different click patterns.
  • To analyze how dolphins adjust click intensity and interval (ICI) in relation to target range.

Main Methods:

  • Two bottlenose dolphins were trained to perform target-related tasks (touching or detecting orientation changes) at varying distances.
  • Dolphins were instrumented with sound recording tags to capture echolocation click data.
  • Interclick intervals (ICI) and source levels were analyzed in relation to target range and two-way travel time (TWTT).

Main Results:

  • Dolphins dynamically increased ICI with target range up to approximately 100m.
  • One dolphin consistently maintained ICI above TWTT, while the other varied ICI relative to TWTT at shorter ranges.
  • Beyond 100m, both dolphins frequently used click packets with longer interpacket intervals but shorter ICIs within packets.
  • Source levels varied with target range, indicating a lack of fixed automatic gain control.

Conclusions:

  • The click-echo-click paradigm is not a fixed echolocation strategy for free-swimming dolphins at extended ranges.
  • Dolphins exhibit flexible echolocation behaviors, including the use of click packets, to manage echo reception and target detection.
  • This study provides the first evidence of click packet usage by free-swimming dolphins during echolocation tasks.