Surface Gradient Ti-Doped MnO₂ Nanowires for High-Rate and Long-Life Lithium Battery

Cryptomelane-type α-MnO₂ has been demonstrated as a promising anode material for high-energy Li-ion batteries because of its high capacity and intriguing [2 × 2] tunnel structure. However, applications of MnO₂ electrode, especially at high current rates and mass active material loading, are limited by the poor mechanical stability, unstable solid electrolyte interphase layer, and low reversibility of conversion reactions. Here, we report a design of homogeneous core-shell MnO₂ nanowires (NWs) created by near-surface gradient Ti doping (Ti-MnO₂ NWs). Such a structurally coherent core-shell configuration endowed gradient volume expansion from the inner core to the outer shell, which could effectively release the stress of the NW lattice during cycling and avoid pulverization of the electrode. Moreover, the gradiently doped Ti is able to avoid the Mn metal coarsening, reducing the metal particle size and improving the reversibility of the conversion reaction. In this way, the Ti-MnO₂ NWs achieved both high reversible areal and volumetrical capacities (2.3 mA h cm^-2 and 991.3 mA h cm^-3 at 200 mA g^-1, respectively), a superior round-trip efficiency (Coulombic efficiency achieved above 99.5% after only 30 cycles), and a long lifetime (a high capacity of 742 mA h g^-1 retained after 3000 cycle at 10 A g^-1) at a high mass loading level of 3 mg cm^-2. In addition, the detailed conversion reaction mechanism was investigated through in situ transmission electron microscopy, which further evidenced that the unique homogeneous core-shell structure could largely suppress the separation of core and shell upon charging and discharging. This new NW configuration could benefit the design of other large-volume-change lithium battery anode materials.