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Related Concept Videos

Ionic Crystal Structures02:42

Ionic Crystal Structures

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Ionic crystals consist of two or more different kinds of ions that usually have different sizes. The packing of these ions into a crystal structure is more complex than the packing of metal atoms that are the same size.
Most monatomic ions behave as charged spheres, and their attraction for ions of opposite charge is the same in every direction. Consequently, stable structures for ionic compounds result (1) when ions of one charge are surrounded by as many ions as possible of the opposite...
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Crystal Growth: Principles of Crystallization01:25

Crystal Growth: Principles of Crystallization

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Crystallization is a phase transformation process in which crystals are precipitated from a supersaturated solution or formed from other sources. During crystallization, atoms or molecules arrange themselves into a well-defined, rigid crystal lattice to minimize energy.
Initiating crystallization involves manipulating the concentration of the solute and the temperature of the solution. Since crystal growth occurs when the ratio of concentration and solubility of the solute in the solvent...
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Crystal Field Theory - Octahedral Complexes02:58

Crystal Field Theory - Octahedral Complexes

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Crystal Field Theory
To explain the observed behavior of transition metal complexes (such as colors), a model involving electrostatic interactions between the electrons from the ligands and the electrons in the unhybridized d orbitals of the central metal atom has been developed. This electrostatic model is crystal field theory (CFT). It helps to understand, interpret, and predict the colors, magnetic behavior, and some structures of coordination compounds of transition metals.
CFT focuses on...
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Crystal Field Theory - Tetrahedral and Square Planar Complexes02:46

Crystal Field Theory - Tetrahedral and Square Planar Complexes

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Tetrahedral Complexes
Crystal field theory (CFT) is applicable to molecules in geometries other than octahedral. In octahedral complexes, the lobes of the dx2−y2 and dz2 orbitals point directly at the ligands. For tetrahedral complexes, the d orbitals remain in place, but with only four ligands located between the axes. None of the orbitals points directly at the tetrahedral ligands. However, the dx2−y2 and dz2 orbitals (along the Cartesian axes) overlap with the ligands less than the dxy,...
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ortho–para-Directing Activators: –CH3, –OH, –⁠NH2, –OCH301:11

ortho–para-Directing Activators: –CH3, –OH, –⁠NH2, –OCH3

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All ortho–para directors, excluding halogens, are activating groups. These groups donate electrons to the ring, making the ring carbons electron-rich. Consequently, the reactivity of the aromatic ring towards electrophilic substitution increases. For instance, the nitration of anisole is about 10,000 times faster than the nitration of benzene. The electron-donating effect of the methoxy group in anisole activates the ortho and para positions on the ring and stabilizes the corresponding...
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Production Efficiency01:01

Production Efficiency

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Net production efficiency (NPE) is the efficiency at which organisms assimilate energy into biomass for the next trophic level. Due to low metabolic rates and less energy spent on thermoregulatory processes, the NPE of ectotherms (cold-blooded animals) is 10 times higher than endotherms (warm-blooded animals).
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 1, 2026

Monovalent Cation Doping of CH3NH3PbI3 for Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells
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High-efficiency 3  μm Er:YGG crystal lasers.

Li You, Dazhi Lu, Zhongben Pan

    Optics Letters
    |December 1, 2018
    PubMed
    Summary

    Researchers achieved efficient erbium-doped yttrium gallium garnet (Er:YGG) crystal lasers at 2.82-2.92 μm. Optimization of Er³⁺ doping concentration to 10 at.% yielded 1.38 W output power and 35.4% slope efficiency.

    Area of Science:

    • Laser Physics
    • Materials Science

    Background:

    • Erbium-doped materials are crucial for mid-infrared lasers.
    • Understanding energy transfer and thermal effects is key for laser efficiency.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To demonstrate efficient erbium-doped yttrium gallium garnet (Er:YGG) crystal lasers at 2.82-2.92 μm.
    • To optimize Er³⁺ doping concentration for improved laser performance.

    Main Methods:

    • Investigated the influence of doping concentration on energy transfer and thermal effects.
    • Optimized Er³⁺ doping concentration in Er:YGG crystals.
    • Characterized laser performance under continuous-wave operation.

    Main Results:

    • Achieved efficient laser operation at 2.82-2.92 μm for the first time in Er:YGG.

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    Photoselective Vaporesection of the Prostate via an End-firing Lithium Triborate Crystal Laser
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  • Optimized Er³⁺ doping concentration to 10 at.%.
  • Obtained maximum continuous-wave output power of 1.38 W with a slope efficiency of 35.4%.

    • Conclusions:

    • The study demonstrates efficient 3 μm lasing in Er:YGG crystals.
    • Optimized doping concentration balances energy transfer and thermal effects for high efficiency.
    • This work aids in developing advanced 3 μm laser sources.