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Viral Recombination

Viral Recombination

Cells are sometimes infected by more than one virus at once. When two viruses disassemble to expose their genomes for replication in the same cell, similar regions of their genomes can pair together and exchange sequences in a process called recombination. Alternatively, viruses with segmented genomes can swap segments in a process called reassortment.

Viral Structure

Viral Structure

Viruses are extraordinarily diverse in shape and size, but they all have several structural features in common. All viruses have a core that contains a DNA- or RNA-based genome. The core is surrounded by a protective coat of proteins called the capsid. The capsid is composed of subunits called capsomeres. The capsid and genome-containing core are together known as the nucleocapsid.

Viral Mutations

Viral Mutations

A mutation is a change in the sequence of bases of DNA or RNA in a genome. Some mutations occur during replication of the genome due to errors made by the polymerase enzymes that replicate DNA or RNA. Unlike DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase is prone to errors because it is not capable of “proofreading” its work. Viruses with RNA-based genomes, like HIV, therefore accrue mutations faster than viruses with DNA-based genomes. Because mutation and recombination provide the raw material...

Gene Flow

Gene Flow

Gene flow is the transfer of genes among populations, resulting from either the dispersal of gametes or from the migration of individuals.

Gene Conversion

Gene Conversion

Other than maintaining genome stability via DNA repair, homologous recombination plays an important role in diversifying the genome. In fact, the recombination of sequences forms the molecular basis of genomic evolution. Random and non-random permutations of genomic sequences create a library of new amalgamated sequences. These newly formed genomes can determine the fitness and survival of cells. In bacteria, homologous and non-homologous types of recombination lead to the evolution of new...

Gene Families

Gene Families

Gene families consist of groups of genes proposed to have originated from a common ancestor. Typically these arise through events in which a gene or genes are mistakenly duplicated during cell division. Unlike their parent genes (which are subject to selection pressure to maintain function), these gene copies do not need to preserve their sequences and may evolve at a relatively faster rate.
Occasionally these regions can be adapted to take on new roles within the organism, becoming novel genes...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 1, 2026

Surgical Method for Virally Mediated Gene Delivery to the Mouse Inner Ear through the Round Window Membrane

Surgical Method for Virally Mediated Gene Delivery to the Mouse Inner Ear through the Round Window Membrane

Published on: March 16, 2015

Non-viral Gene Delivery.

Chi Hong Sum¹, Samantha Marisha Shortall¹, Shirley Wong¹

¹University of Waterloo, School of Pharmacy, Waterloo, ON, Canada.

Experientia Supplementum (2012)

|December 12, 2018

Summary

Non-viral gene delivery methods offer alternatives to viral vectors, addressing safety and production concerns. Physical and chemical techniques, including combination approaches, show promise for efficient gene transfer into target cells.

Keywords:

Carbon-based gene delivery Gold nanoparticles Lipofection Localized hyperthermia Magnetofection Microinjection Non-viral gene delivery Optical transfection Polyfection Sonoporation

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Last Updated: Feb 1, 2026

Surgical Method for Virally Mediated Gene Delivery to the Mouse Inner Ear through the Round Window Membrane

Surgical Method for Virally Mediated Gene Delivery to the Mouse Inner Ear through the Round Window Membrane

Published on: March 16, 2015

Ex Vivo Culture of Patient Tissue & Examination of Gene Delivery

Ex Vivo Culture of Patient Tissue & Examination of Gene Delivery

Published on: December 20, 2010

An Orthotopic Bladder Cancer Model for Gene Delivery Studies

An Orthotopic Bladder Cancer Model for Gene Delivery Studies

Published on: December 1, 2013

Area of Science:

Biotechnology
Molecular Biology
Gene Therapy

Background:

Viral vectors are common for gene delivery but present safety and production challenges.
A research gap exists for alternative gene delivery solutions.
Non-viral vectors offer a diverse range of physical and chemical methods.

Purpose of the Study:

To review and categorize non-viral gene delivery methods.
To highlight the potential of physical and chemical transfection techniques.
To discuss combination approaches for enhanced gene delivery.

Main Methods:

Physical methods: microinjection, electroporation, ballistic injection, magnetofection, sonoporation, optical transfection, localized hyperthermia.
Chemical methods: lipofection, polyfection, gold complexation, carbon-based methods.
Review of combination strategies for improved outcomes.

Main Results:

Non-viral vectors provide a wide array of options for gene delivery.
Various physical and chemical methods are detailed for targeting cell nuclei.
Combination approaches demonstrate significant potential for enhanced transfection efficiency and reduced immune response.

Conclusions:

Non-viral gene delivery methods are crucial for overcoming limitations of viral vectors.
The diverse range of physical and chemical techniques expands gene delivery possibilities.
Combination strategies represent a promising future direction for non-viral gene therapy.