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Habitat fragmentation describes the division of a more extensive, continuous habitat into smaller, discontinuous areas. Human activities such as land conversion, as well as slower geological processes leading to changes in the physical environment, are the two leading causes of habitat fragmentation. The fragmentation process typically follows the same steps: perforation, dissection, fragmentation, shrinkage, and attrition.
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Alkenes lose one electron from the unsaturated π bond upon ionization and form stable molecular ions. Further fragmentation of alkenes occurs through three different reaction pathways. The most prominent fragmentation is the cleavage at the allylic position. The resultant allylic carbocation is resonance stabilized. In the mass spectra of terminal alkenes, this fragment appears at a mass-to-charge ratio of 41. In the internal alkenes, where there are two choices of allylic cleavage, the...
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Amines can be identified using mass spectroscopy based on their characteristic fragmentation patterns. The molecular ions of amines undergo fragmentation via ⍺-cleavage. The ⍺-cleavage of the carbon-carbon bonds in amines generates an alkyl radical and resonance-stabilized nitrogen-containing cation.
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In mass spectrometry, cycloalkanes exhibit distinct fragmentation patterns due to the inherent stability of their molecular ions compared to linear or branched alkanes. The ring structure of cycloalkanes provides additional stability to the molecular ions, often resulting in prominent ion peaks in the mass spectrum.
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The molecular ions of cycloalkenes undergo fragmentation via a retro-Diels–Alder reaction.
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The fragmentation of alkynes preferentially occurs at the carbon–carbon bond between the α and β carbon of the alkyne bond to generate a 3-propynyl cation (or propargyl cation). In terminal alkynes, there is the only type of fragmentation that yields the 3-propynyl cation. The unsubstituted 3-propynyl cation exhibits a peak at a mass-to-charge ratio of 39. In internal alkynes, the 3-propynyl cation is substituted. For example, 2-pentyne fragments into methyl-substituted 3-propynyl cation,...
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Dusting, fragmenting, popcorning or dustmenting?

Mike Wenzel1, Matthew Bultitude2, Johannes Salem3

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|December 15, 2018
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This review examines fragmenting and dusting techniques for kidney stone treatment using ureteroscopy (URS) and holmium laser lithotripsy, including newer methods like "popcorning" for optimized outcomes.

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Area of Science:

  • Urology
  • Endourology
  • Medical Technology

Background:

  • Endoscopic techniques, particularly ureteroscopy (URS), have advanced kidney stone management.
  • Holmium laser lithotripsy is the predominant energy source for stone disintegration in URS.
  • URS offers surgeons diverse strategies for treating patients with kidney stones.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the latest scientific investigations on fragmenting and dusting techniques for kidney stone treatment.
  • To discuss optimizing treatment strategies within ureteroscopy.
  • To critically evaluate emerging settings like 'popcorning' in laser lithotripsy.

Main Methods:

  • Review of current scientific literature on endoscopic kidney stone treatment.
  • Analysis of fragmenting and dusting techniques in holmium laser lithotripsy.
  • Examination of novel laser lithotripsy settings and their efficacy.

Main Results:

  • Fragmenting uses low frequencies and high pulse energy for stone breakdown.
  • Dusting employs high frequencies and low pulse energy to create fine particles for spontaneous passage.
  • Newer techniques such as 'popcorning' are being investigated for improved outcomes.

Conclusions:

  • Fragmenting and dusting are key techniques in holmium laser lithotripsy for kidney stones.
  • Optimization of treatment involves selecting appropriate techniques based on stone characteristics.
  • Emerging methods require further research to establish their role in clinical practice.