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Related Concept Videos

Open and closed-loop control systems01:17

Open and closed-loop control systems

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Control systems are foundational elements in automation and engineering. They are broadly categorized into open-loop and closed-loop systems. These classifications hinge on the presence or absence of feedback mechanisms, significantly influencing the system's performance, complexity, and application.
An open-loop control system operates without feedback from the output. It consists of two primary elements: the controller and the controlled process. The controller receives an input signal...
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Translation01:31

Translation

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Lesson: Translation
Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes the final step in the expression of genes. This process is carried out by ribosomes, complexes of protein and specialized RNA molecules. Ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and other proteins produce a chain of amino acids—the polypeptide—as the end product of translation.
Translation Produces the Building Blocks of...
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Translation01:31

Translation

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Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes the final step in the expression of genes. This process is carried out by ribosomes, complexes of protein and specialized RNA molecules. Ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and other proteins produce a chain of amino acids—the polypeptide—as the end product of translation.
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Proteins are...
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Initiation of Translation02:33

Initiation of Translation

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Initiating translation is complex because it involves multiple molecules. Initiator tRNA, ribosomal subunits, and eukaryotic initiation factors (eIFs) are all required to assemble on the initiation codon of mRNA. This process consists of several steps that are mediated by different eIFs.
First, the initiator tRNA must be selected from the pool of elongator tRNAs by eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2). The initiator tRNA (Met-tRNAi) has conserved sequence elements including modified bases at...
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Termination of Translation01:44

Termination of Translation

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The large ribosomal subunit has several important structures essential to translation. These include the peptidyl transferase center (PTC) - which is the site where the peptide bond is formed - and a large, internal, water-filled tube through which the nascent polypeptide moves. This latter structure is called the Peptide Exit Tunnel, and it begins at the PTC and spans the body of the large ribosomal subunit. During translation, as the nascent polypeptide chain is synthesized, it passes through...
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Improving Translational Accuracy02:07

Improving Translational Accuracy

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Base complementarity between the three base pairs of mRNA codon and the tRNA anticodon is not a failsafe mechanism. Inaccuracies can range from a single mismatch to no correct base pairing at all. The free energy difference between the correct and nearly correct base pairs can be as small as 3 kcal/ mol. With complementarity being the only proofreading step, the estimated error frequency would be one wrong amino acid in every 100 amino acids incorporated. However, error frequencies observed in...
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Closed-Loop Neuromodulation in Physiological and Translational Research.

Stavros Zanos1

  • 1Translational Neurophysiology Laboratory, Center for Bioelectronic Medicine, Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Northwell Health, Manhasset, New York 11030.

Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine
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Closed-loop neuromodulation (CLN) offers a responsive approach to treating neurological disorders by adjusting stimulation based on real-time physiological states. This adaptive neurostimulation enhances treatment efficacy and minimizes side effects compared to traditional open-loop methods.

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Biomedical Engineering

Background:

  • Neuromodulation is vital for studying nervous system physiology and treating neurological disorders.
  • Current neurostimulation often uses open-loop systems, delivering energy on a fixed schedule.
  • Open-loop stimulation can be ineffective or cause side effects due to dynamic physiological states.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To discuss the rationale and conditions for employing closed-loop neuromodulation (CLN).
  • To describe the fundamental components of CLN systems.
  • To present examples of CLN systems in physiological and translational research.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing literature on neuromodulation techniques.
  • Analysis of the principles and components of closed-loop neuromodulation systems.
  • Compilation of case studies and examples of CLN applications.

Main Results:

  • CLN systems offer responsive neurostimulation, adjusting delivery based on physiological conditions.
  • Adaptive neurostimulation within CLN allows real-time optimization of stimulation parameters.
  • CLN demonstrates potential for improved functional restoration and reduced adverse effects.

Conclusions:

  • Closed-loop neuromodulation is a promising advancement over open-loop systems.
  • CLN systems provide a more dynamic and personalized approach to neuromodulation therapy.
  • Further research and application of CLN are essential for neurological disorder treatment.