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Isotopes

Isotopes

Elements have a set number of protons that determines their atomic number (Z). For example, all atoms with eight protons are oxygen; however, the number of neutrons can vary for atoms of the same element. The sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons is the mass number (A). Atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers are called isotopes. Elements can have multiple isotopes, for example, carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14.
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Life on Earth is carbon-based, as all macromolecules that make up living organisms contain carbon atoms. All organic compounds have a carbon backbone. Each carbon atom is tetravalent and can bond with four other atoms, making it an extraordinarily flexible component of biological molecules. Because carbon’s valence electrons are stable, it rarely becomes an ion. As the carbon chain increases in length, structural modifications such as ring structures, double bonds, and branching side...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 31, 2026

Sampling and Pretreatment of Tooth Enamel Carbonate for Stable Carbon and Oxygen Isotope Analysis

Sampling and Pretreatment of Tooth Enamel Carbonate for Stable Carbon and Oxygen Isotope Analysis

Published on: August 15, 2018

Direct Carbon Isotope Exchange through Decarboxylative Carboxylation.

Cian Kingston¹, Michael A Wallace², Alban J Allentoff²

¹Department of Chemistry , The Scripps Research Institute , 10550 North Torrey Pines Road , La Jolla , California 92037 , United States.

Journal of the American Chemical Society

|January 4, 2019

Summary

Researchers developed a new two-step method for carbon-14 radiolabeling of alkyl carboxylic acids. This approach simplifies the process for creating complex compounds essential for drug metabolism and pharmacokinetic studies.

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Sampling and Pretreatment of Tooth Enamel Carbonate for Stable Carbon and Oxygen Isotope Analysis

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Characterization, Quantification and Compound-specific Isotopic Analysis of Pyrogenic Carbon Using Benzene Polycarboxylic Acids BPCA

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Light-driven Enzymatic Decarboxylation

Light-driven Enzymatic Decarboxylation

Published on: May 22, 2016

Area of Science:

Organic Chemistry
Radiochemistry
Medicinal Chemistry

Background:

Alkyl carboxylic acids are important building blocks in medicinal chemistry.
Efficient radiolabeling is crucial for drug metabolism and pharmacokinetic (DMPK) studies.
Existing radiolabeling methods can be complex and time-consuming.

Purpose of the Study:

To present a novel two-step degradation-reconstruction approach for carbon-14 radiolabeling.
To enable the synthesis of complex compounds with high isotopic incorporation.
To demonstrate the method's utility in a practical, industrial setting.

Main Methods:

Activation of alkyl carboxylic acids via redox-active ester formation.
Nickel-mediated decarboxylative carboxylation for introducing the carbon-14 label.
Application of the protocol in an industrial radiolabeling workflow.

Main Results:

Successful radiolabeling of a range of alkyl carboxylic acids.
Achieved ample isotopic incorporations suitable for DMPK studies.
Demonstrated the protocol's practicality and operational simplicity.

Conclusions:

The presented two-step method offers an efficient route for carbon-14 radiolabeling.
This approach facilitates the synthesis of complex molecules for pharmaceutical research.
The protocol is suitable for industrial-scale application in radiochemistry.