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Crossing Over

Crossing Over

Unlike mitosis, meiosis aims for genetic diversity in its creation of haploid gametes. Dividing germ cells first begin this process in prophase I, where each chromosome—replicated in S phase—is now composed of two sister chromatids (identical copies) joined centrally.
The homologous pairs of sister chromosomes—one from the maternal and one from the paternal genome—then begin to align alongside each other lengthwise, matching corresponding DNA positions in a process...

Crossing Over

Crossing Over

Crossing over is the exchange of genetic information between homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis I. Genetic recombination gives rise to allelic diversity in the newly formed daughter cells. In humans, crossing over produces genetically distinct haploid egg and sperm cells that undergo fertilization to produce unique offspring. Before cell division starts, the germ cell’s chromosome(s) undergo duplication in the S phase of the cell cycle. As the cells enter prophase I,...

Shape and Texture of Coarse Aggregate

Shape and Texture of Coarse Aggregate

Aggregate shape is classified based on the relative sharpness or roundness of the edges and corners. This classification includes categories like rounded, angular, elongated, and flaky, each with specific characteristics. Rounded aggregates, fully shaped by attrition, are typical of river or seashore gravel, while angular aggregates, such as crushed rock, have well-defined edges. Aggregates that are elongated and flaky are less desirable, as they can reduce the workability and strength of...

Pollination and Flower Structure

Pollination and Flower Structure

Flowers are the reproductive, seed-producing structures of angiosperms. Typically, flowers consist of sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Sepals and petals are the vegetative flower organs. Stamens and carpels are the reproductive organs.

Crossed Aldol Reaction Using Weak Bases

Crossed Aldol Reaction Using Weak Bases

This lesson deals with the crossed aldol reaction using weak bases. The self-condensation of an aldehyde having α hydrogen is prevented by adding it slowly to a mixture of formaldehyde and weak bases like hydroxide and alkoxide. Upon slow addition of the aldehyde, the base deprotonates the α carbon of the aldehyde to form the corresponding enolate. The enolate subsequently attacks the formaldehyde to form a single crossed product. Figure 1 depicts the aforementioned reaction.

Monohybrid Crosses

Monohybrid Crosses

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 31, 2026

Structure-Based Simulation and Sampling of Transcription Factor Protein Movements along DNA from Atomic-Scale Stepping to Coarse-Grained Diffusion

Structure-Based Simulation and Sampling of Transcription Factor Protein Movements along DNA from Atomic-Scale Stepping to Coarse-Grained Diffusion

Published on: March 1, 2022

Accurate Structure-Based Coarse Graining Leads to Consistent Barrier-Crossing Dynamics.

Tristan Bereau¹, Joseph F Rudzinski¹

¹Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, 55128 Mainz, Germany.

Physical Review Letters

|January 5, 2019

Summary

This study introduces a novel surface-hopping method for molecular dynamics, enhancing coarse-grained simulations. This approach accurately captures complex conformational changes and improves long-time dynamics for barrier-crossing events.

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Area of Science:

Computational chemistry
Molecular dynamics
Statistical mechanics

Background:

Structure-based coarse-graining is crucial for simulating large molecular systems.
Current methods are limited by the accuracy of molecular mechanics force fields.
Accurate sampling of conformational ensembles is essential for understanding molecular behavior.

Purpose of the Study:

To extend multisurface dynamics for classical molecular systems.
To develop a method for accurate conformational ensemble sampling.
To improve the long-time dynamics of systems with barrier-crossing events.

Main Methods:

Extension of multisurface dynamics to classical systems.
Application of a surface-hopping scheme to couple conformational basins.
Systematic incorporation of multiple surfaces to improve cross-correlations.

Main Results:

Accurate sampling of the conformational ensemble in equilibrium.
Coupling of distinct conformational basins beyond Hamiltonian additivity.
Achievement of consistent long-time dynamics for barrier-crossing events.

Conclusions:

The developed method offers a systematic route to improve coarse-grained molecular simulations.
Multisurface dynamics provides a powerful framework for classical molecular systems.
This approach enhances the accuracy of molecular dynamics, particularly for complex systems.