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Isotopes

Isotopes

Elements have a set number of protons that determines their atomic number (Z). For example, all atoms with eight protons are oxygen; however, the number of neutrons can vary for atoms of the same element. The sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons is the mass number (A). Atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers are called isotopes. Elements can have multiple isotopes, for example, carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14.
An element's atomic mass, or weight,...

Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

A chemical symbol is an abbreviation used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. The same symbol is used to indicate one atom of mercury (microscopic domain) or to label a container of many atoms of the element mercury (macroscopic domain).
Some symbols are derived from the common English name of the element; others are abbreviations of the name in another language — Latin, Greek or German. For example, the symbol for aluminum (common name)...

Social Exchange Theory

Social Exchange Theory

We have discussed why we form relationships, what attracts us to others, and different types of love. But what determines whether we are satisfied with and stay in a relationship? One theory that provides an explanation is social exchange theory. According to social exchange theory, we act as naïve economists in keeping a tally of the ratio of costs and benefits of forming and maintaining a relationship with others (Rusbult & Van Lange, 2003).

Social Exchange Theory

Social Exchange Theory

As formulated by John Thibaut and Harold Kelley, Social Exchange Theory explains human relationships as economic-like exchanges that maximize rewards and minimize costs. This theory suggests that individuals engage in relationships to gain benefits and reduce burdens, similar to economic transactions. It has been widely applied to various types of relationships, including romantic, professional, and social interactions.Rewards and Costs in RelationshipsRelationship rewards include emotional...

Gas Exchange and Transport

Gas Exchange and Transport

Gas exchange, the intake of molecular oxygen (O2) from the environment and the outflow of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the environment, is necessary for cellular function. Gas exchange during respiration occurs largely via the movement of gas molecules along pressure gradients. Gas travels from areas of higher partial pressure to areas of lower partial pressure. In mammals, gas exchange occurs in the alveoli of the lungs, which are adjacent to capillaries and share a membrane with them.

Isotopes and Radioisotopes

Isotopes and Radioisotopes

In the early 1900s, English chemist Frederick Soddy realized that an element could have atoms with different masses that were chemically indistinguishable. These different types are called isotopes — atoms of the same element that differ in mass. Isotopes differ in mass because they have different numbers of neutrons but are chemically identical because they have the same number of protons. Soddy was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1921 for this discovery.
An isotope containing...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 31, 2026

Microfluidic Buffer Exchange for Interference-free Micro/Nanoparticle Cell Engineering

Microfluidic Buffer Exchange for Interference-free Micro/Nanoparticle Cell Engineering

Published on: July 10, 2016

Rapid isotopic exchange in nanoparticles.

Papri Chakraborty¹, Abhijit Nag¹, Ganapati Natarajan¹

¹DST Unit of Nanoscience (DST UNS) and Thematic Unit of Excellence (TUE), Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600 036, India.

Science Advances

|January 8, 2019

Summary

Nanoscale clusters undergo rapid mixing in solution, forming new mixed-isotope clusters. This entropy-driven process occurs spontaneously across various timescales, similar to water molecule mixing.

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Area of Science:

* Materials Science
* Physical Chemistry
* Nanotechnology

Background:

* Understanding solution-state dynamics is crucial for nanoscale materials.
* Isotopically pure atomically precise clusters offer a unique model system.
* Previous studies lacked detailed insights into rapid exchange mechanisms.

Purpose of the Study:

* To reveal rapid solution-state exchange dynamics in nanoscale matter.
* To investigate the mixing behavior of isotopically pure silver clusters.
* To elucidate the driving forces and timescales of cluster mixing.

Main Methods:

* Utilized isotopically pure silver clusters (¹⁰⁷Ag and ¹⁰⁹Ag).
* Mixed these clusters in solution to observe exchange dynamics.
* Analyzed the resulting isotopically mixed clusters.

Main Results:

* Demonstrated spontaneous formation of isotopically mixed silver clusters upon mixing pure clusters.
* Observed exchange dynamics occurring across multiple time scales.
* Drew parallels to the mixing of heavy water (HDO) from H₂O and D₂O.

Conclusions:

* Solution-state exchange in nanoscale clusters is rapid and spontaneous.
* The process is primarily driven by the entropy of mixing.
* Atomically precise clusters serve as excellent model systems for studying fundamental mixing phenomena.