Nutritional aspects of leukocytic cytokines

Immune responses result in a variety of metabolic adjustments that are mediated by cytokines of leukocytic origin. Of the dozens of cytokines released during an immune response, interleukin-1 (IL-1), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF alpha) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) are the major mediators of intermediary metabolism. These three cytokines act in concert to decrease food intake, increase resting energy expenditure, gluconeogenesis, glucose oxidation, and hepatic synthesis of fatty acids and acute phase proteins, decrease fatty acid uptake by adipocytes and alter the distribution of zinc, iron and copper. Most of these activities result from direct interactions between the cytokine and the responding cells. IL-1, TNF alpha and IL-6 also affect changes in metabolism by changing levels of circulating insulin, glucagon and corticosterone. The nutritional impact of these metabolic changes is dependent upon age. In growing animals, increases in energy expenditure and oxidation of amino acids are balanced by lower needs associated with growth. In adult animals, energy and amino acid requirements are increased by an amount similar to the increased basal metabolic rate and amino acid oxidation. Nutrition also influences the release of cytokines and consequently affects regulation of the immune response. For example, protein deficiency results in decreased IL-1 release and impaired tissue responses to IL-1.