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Related Concept Videos

Thermodynamics: Chemical Potential and Activity01:10

Thermodynamics: Chemical Potential and Activity

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The effective concentration of a species in a solution can be expressed precisely in terms of its activity. Activity considers the effect of electrolytes present in the vicinity of the species of interest and depends on the ionic strength of the solution. The activity of a species is expressed as the product of molar concentration and the activity coefficient of the species.
The thermodynamic equilibrium constant is more accurately defined in terms of activity rather than concentration.
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A chemical formula presents information about the proportions of atoms constituting a particular chemical compound or molecule, mainly using symbols of elements and numbers. At times other symbols, such as dashes, parentheses, brackets, commas, plus, and minus signs, are also used. A chemical formula can be one of three types – molecular, empirical, and structural.
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Chemical equations represent the identities and relative quantities of substances involved in a chemical reaction. The substances undergoing reaction are called reactants, and their formulas are placed on the left side of the equation. The substances generated by the reaction are called products, and their formulas are placed on the right side of the equation. Plus signs (+) separate individual reactant and product formulas, and an arrow (→) separates the reactant and product (left and right)...
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Chemical Reactions01:19

Chemical Reactions

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A chemical reaction is a process by which the bonds in the atoms of substances are rearranged to generate new substances. Matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction—the same type and number of atoms that make up the reactants are still present in the products. Merely, the rearrangement of chemical bonds produces new compounds.
Chemical Reactions Rearrange Atoms into New Substances
A chemical reaction takes starting materials—the reactants—and changes them...
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Types of Chemical Bonds02:37

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Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and formation of different bonds. Chemical bonding is central to chemistry; it explains how atoms or ions bond together to form molecules. It explains why some bonds are strong and others are weak, or why one carbon bonds with two oxygens and not three; why water is H2O and not H4O. 
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The characteristics that enable us to distinguish one substance from another are called properties.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 31, 2026

An Engineered Split-TET2 Enzyme for Chemical-inducible DNA Hydroxymethylation and Epigenetic Remodeling
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Chemically induced vesiculation as a platform for studying TMEM16F activity.

Tina W Han1,2,3, Wenlei Ye1,2,3, Neville P Bethel4

  • 1Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
|January 10, 2019
PubMed
Summary

Calcium-activated phospholipid scramblase (TMEM16F) is crucial for generating extracellular vesicles. This study uses giant plasma membrane vesicles to uncover TMEM16F

Keywords:
GPMVTMEM16Fcalcium influxextracellular vesiclesphospholipid scrambling

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Area of Science:

  • Cell Biology
  • Membrane Biophysics
  • Biochemistry

Background:

  • Calcium-activated phospholipid scramblases, like TMEM16F, regulate membrane asymmetry by translocating lipids bidirectionally.
  • TMEM16F activity is essential for the Ca2+-dependent generation of extracellular vesicles (EVs), specifically microvesicles, from the plasma membrane.
  • Cells deficient in TMEM16F-dependent scrambling exhibit impaired EV production.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the mechanism of TMEM16F activity using a novel kinetic assay.
  • To identify and characterize TMEM16F mutants that elucidate its activation mechanism.
  • To further explore the role of TMEM16F-mediated lipid translocation in extracellular vesiculation.

Main Methods:

  • Adaptation of chemically induced giant plasma membrane vesicles (GPMVs) as a kinetic assay.
  • Utilizing the GPMV assay to study TMEM16F-dependent phospholipid scrambling and calcium influx.
  • Identification and characterization of inactivating and activating TMEM16F mutants.

Main Results:

  • The GPMV assay successfully quantifies TMEM16F activity.
  • Characterization of specific TMEM16F mutants provides insights into its activation process.
  • Demonstrated link between TMEM16F activity, lipid translocation, and microvesicle formation.

Conclusions:

  • TMEM16F plays a critical role in the generation of calcium-dependent extracellular vesicles.
  • The developed GPMV assay is a valuable tool for dissecting TMEM16F mechanism and regulation.
  • Understanding TMEM16F function is key to further research on lipid translocation and vesiculation.