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Polymers02:34

Polymers

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The word polymer is derived from the Greek words “poly” which means “many” and “mer” which means “parts”. Polymers are long chains of molecules composed of repeating units of smaller molecules, known as monomers. They either occur naturally, such as DNA and proteins, or can be constructed synthetically, like plastics. They have varied structural characteristics, such as linear chains, branched chains, or complex networks, that contribute to the...
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The absolute value is a mathematical tool that represents the distance of a number from zero on the number line, regardless of its sign. In the context of inequalities, absolute value expressions help define a range of permissible values or boundaries for a variable. These inequalities are commonly used in scientific modeling and data interpretation, where variability within or beyond a certain threshold must be captured precisely.An absolute value inequality of the form ∣x∣ ≤...
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Mean Absolute Deviation01:13

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The mean absolute deviation is also a measure of the variability of data in a sample. It is the absolute value of the average difference between the data values and the mean.
Let us consider a dataset containing the number of unsold cupcakes in five shops: 10, 15, 8, 7, and 10. Initially, calculate the sample mean. Then calculate the deviation, or the difference, between each data value and the mean. Next, the absolute values of these deviations are added and divided by the sample size to...
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Inertial Frames of Reference01:03

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Newton’s first law is usually considered to be a statement about reference frames. It provides a method for identifying a special type of reference frame: the inertial reference frame. In principle, we can make the net force on a body zero. If its velocity relative to a given frame is constant, then that frame is said to be inertial. So, by definition, an inertial reference frame is a reference frame where Newton's first law holds valid. Newton's first law applies to objects with...
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Non-inertial Frames of Reference01:27

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A reference frame accelerating or decelerating relative to an inertial frame is a non-inertial frame. To help understand this, consider what taking off in an airplane, turning a corner in a car, riding a merry-go-round, and the circular motion of a tropical cyclone all have in common. All these systems are accelerating, decelerating, or rotating relative to the Earth; hence, they all are non-inertial frames. All these systems exhibit inertial forces, which merely seem to arise from motion,...
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Updated: Jan 30, 2026

Dosimetry for Cell Irradiation using Orthovoltage 40-300 kV X-Ray Facilities
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Absolute dosimetry with polymer gels-a TLD reference system.

P Mann1, A Schwahofer, C P Karger

  • 1Department of Medical Physics in Radiation Therapy (E040), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, Heidelberg, Germany. National Center for Radiation Research in Oncology (NCRO), Heidelberg Institute for Radiation Oncology (HIRO), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, Heidelberg, Germany. Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed. These authors contributed equally to this study.

Physics in Medicine and Biology
|January 11, 2019
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Combining polymer gels (PG) with thermoluminescence (TL) detectors improves 3D absolute dosimetry accuracy. This novel method reduces dose measurement deviations to under 1% in complex radiation fields.

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Area of Science:

  • Medical Physics
  • Radiation Dosimetry
  • Radiotherapy

Background:

  • Absolute 3D dosimetry with polymer gels (PG) is challenging, often requiring secondary measurements.
  • PG are typically limited to relative dosimetry due to complexity in absolute calibration.
  • Conventional detectors are needed to verify PG measurements, adding complexity.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop a novel method for accurate absolute 3D dosimetry using polymer gels.
  • To overcome the limitations of PG in absolute dose measurements by integrating TL detectors.
  • To enable single-measurement absolute dosimetry in complex phantoms.

Main Methods:

  • Combined PAGAT polymer gel (PG) with TLD600 thermoluminescence (TL) detectors.
  • TL detectors were attached to the PG container within a cylindrical phantom.
  • Irradiations were performed using homogeneous and small-field geometries; PG evaluated by MRI, TL detectors by a Harshaw 5500 reader.

Main Results:

  • PG dosimetry alone showed up to 4% deviation from calculations.
  • Integrating TL detector data for PG calibration reduced deviations to less than 1%.
  • High passing rates (>96% for 3%/3mm, >93% for 2%/2mm) were achieved.

Conclusions:

  • A novel method combining 3D PG and TL dose measurements enables accurate absolute 3D dose measurements.
  • This technique is applicable in complex anthropomorphic phantoms using a single measurement.
  • The method was validated for both homogeneous large fields and small fields with sharp dose gradients.