Normal and abnormal regulation of 1,25-(OH)2D synthesis

1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25-(OH)2D) plays a crucial role in the maintenance of blood calcium and phosphorus levels and in normal skeletal mineralization. The concentration of this metabolite in the blood is, by necessity, tightly regulated. The most important stimuli for renal 1,25-(OH)2D synthesis include parathyroid hormone (PTH), its second messenger cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and phosphate deprivation. Hypocalcemia and calcitonin, initially thought to act via stimulation of PTH release, have now been shown to directly stimulate 1-hydroxylation. Estrogens also increase 1,25-(OH)2D production, probably by upregulating renal PTH receptors. Inhibitors of the renal 25-(OH)D 1 alpha-hydroxylase include 1,25-(OH)2D itself, hypercalcemia, and phosphate loading. The PTH-vitamin D axis as modulated by the serum ionized calcium level controls adaptation to alterations in dietary calcium and sodium intake and to changes in skeletal turnover based on the level of physical activity. Although normally the renal production of 1,25-(OH)2D is tightly regulated and changes little in response to vitamin D challenge, there are certain conditions in which 1,25-(OH)2D appears to be substrate-dependent. These include hypoparathyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, vitamin D deficiency, sarcoidosis and the anephric state, conditions in which PTH is not well-modulated by alterations in serum ionized calcium or in which extrarenal synthesis of 1,25-(OH)2D occurs. In several disorders, including absorptive hypercalciuria, pseudohypoparathyroidism, hypophosphatemic rickets, and tumoral calcinosis, the regulation of the renal 1 alpha-hydroxylase appears to be altered.