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Related Concept Videos

Additional Routes of Drug Administration01:18

Additional Routes of Drug Administration

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Choosing the appropriate route of drug administration is significantly influenced by two key factors: the therapeutic objectives and the inherent properties of the drug being used.
Administering drugs via inhalation allows for the direct delivery of gaseous, volatile substances or droplets to different parts of the respiratory tract. One of the advantages of the inhalation route is the rapid absorption of drugs into the circulatory system, which is possible because of the large surface area of...
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Routes of Drug Administration: Enteral01:18

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Medications can be administered through the enteral route using liquids, capsules, or tablets.
Enteral administration involves drug administration via the mouth in two ways: orally or sublingually.
Unlike sublingually drugs, drugs that are taken orally pass through the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and get metabolized by the liver. Once metabolized, the drug is absorbed into the systemic circulation, reaching different body parts via the bloodstream. However, while passing through the stomach,...
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Routes of Drug Administration: Parenteral01:25

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The administration of drugs via parenteral routes allows for direct drug introduction into the systemic circulation, resulting in high bioavailability because the medication bypasses the harsh conditions of the gastrointestinal tract and hepatic metabolism.
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Routes of Drug Administration: Overview01:22

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Drug administration involves delivering drugs to the body through various routes, such as enteral, parenteral, and topical.
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Two-Compartment Open Model: Extravascular Administration01:12

Two-Compartment Open Model: Extravascular Administration

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The two-compartment model for extravascular administration represents a drug's absorption and distribution process. It features a central compartment, where the drug is first absorbed, and a peripheral compartment, which illustrates the drug's distribution throughout the body. The rate of change in drug concentration in the central compartment is calculated by three exponents: absorption, distribution, and elimination.
The absorption exponent (ka) indicates the speed at which the drug...
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Drug Administration and Therapy Phases: Overview01:26

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Drugs, the chemical agents used in diagnosing, treating, or preventing diseases, undergo a four-phase process of development: pharmaceutic, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and therapeutic.
The pharmaceutical phase focuses on leveraging the physicochemical properties of the drug to design and manufacture an effective product. Variants include orally administered tablets or capsules, topical creams or ointments, and parenteral-delivery solutions or emulsions.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 30, 2026

Optimizing Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery: A Fully 3D CT O-Arm Navigated Workflow in MIS TLIF
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Wrong Site Spine Surgery in the Veterans Administration.

Bradley V Watts1,2,3, Jacob R Rachlin4, William Gunnar5,6

  • 1VA National Center for Patient Safety, Ann Arbor, MI.

Clinical Spine Surgery
|January 15, 2019
PubMed
Summary

Wrong level spine surgery remains a significant safety concern. Poor radiograph quality and intraoperative marker issues were the most common causes, highlighting the need for improved imaging practices.

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Area of Science:

  • Neurosurgery
  • Patient Safety
  • Health Administration

Background:

  • Wrong site surgery is a frequent event reported to The Joint Commission.
  • Spine surgery errors can lead to significant patient harm.
  • Approximately 50% of spine surgeons encounter at least one wrong-site surgery during their careers.

Purpose of the Study:

  • Determine the occurrence frequency of incorrect spine level surgery within the Veterans Health Administration (VHA).
  • Identify causal factors contributing to these surgical errors.
  • Propose actionable solutions to mitigate wrong-level spine surgeries.

Main Methods:

  • Descriptive analysis of wrong level spinal surgery incidents reported to the VHA National Center for Patient Safety (NCPS) from 2000 to 2017.
  • Calculation of wrong-site spine surgery rates, including specific rates for orthopedic and neurosurgical procedures.
  • Review of root cause analyses for identified cases.

Main Results:

  • 32 cases of wrong-site spine surgery were reported between 2000 and 2017.
  • Cervical, lumbar, and thoracic regions were affected in 14, 13, and 5 cases, respectively.
  • The primary root causes identified were issues with radiographs (69%) and intraoperative markers (69%).

Conclusions:

  • Wrong level spine surgery persists as a critical safety issue, even with adherence to existing guidelines.
  • Optimizing radiograph quality and interpretation accuracy is crucial for preventing these errors.
  • Targeted interventions addressing imaging protocols are recommended to enhance patient safety in spine surgery.