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Secondary Active Transport01:55

Secondary Active Transport

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One example of how cells use the energy contained in electrochemical gradients is demonstrated by glucose transport into cells. The ion vital to this process is sodium (Na+), which is typically present in higher concentrations extracellularly than in the cytosol. Such a concentration difference is due, in part, to the action of an enzyme “pump” embedded in the cellular membrane that actively expels Na+ from a cell. Importantly, as this pump contributes to the high concentration of...
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One example of how cells use the energy contained in electrochemical gradients is demonstrated by glucose transport into cells. The ion vital to this process is sodium (Na+), which is typically present in higher concentrations extracellularly than in the cytosol. Such a concentration difference is due, in part, to the action of an enzyme "pump" embedded in the cellular membrane that actively expels Na+ from a cell. Importantly, as this pump contributes to the high concentration of...
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In contrast to passive transport, active transport involves a substance being moved through membranes in a direction against its concentration or electrochemical gradient. There are two types of active transport: primary active transport and secondary active transport. Primary active transport utilizes chemical energy from ATP to drive protein pumps that are embedded in the cell membrane. With energy from ATP, the pumps transport ions against their electrochemical gradients—a direction...
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In contrast to passive transport, active transport involves a substance being moved through membranes in a direction against its concentration or electrochemical gradient. There are two types of active transport: primary active transport and secondary active transport. Primary active transport utilizes chemical energy from ATP to drive protein pumps embedded in the cell membrane. With energy from ATP, the pumps transport ions against their electrochemical gradients—a direction they would...
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Active transport is a critical biological process that allows cells to move solutes against an electrochemical gradient. This process requires direct energy input and is characterized by its selectivity, saturability, and susceptibility to competitive inhibition.
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A decreasing function describes a relationship where the output consistently declines as the input increases. This means that for any two input values, if one is greater than the other, the corresponding output is smaller. Mathematically, a function f is decreasing on an interval I if for every x1 < x2​ in I, f (x1) > f (x2). This type of behavior is visually identified on a graph that slopes downward from left to right.The nature of a function can be analyzed by calculating...
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Influence of decrease in the muscle activity during mastication on occurrence of the Stage II transport.

Akiko Komine1, Ryo Ishida2, Shuichiro Yamashita1

  • 1Department of Removable Partial Prosthodontics, Tokyo Dental College, Tokyo, Japan.

Journal of Prosthodontic Research
|January 16, 2019
PubMed
Summary

Reducing chewing muscle activity increases chewing strokes before swallowing, but does not affect the total number of swallows. This impacts the timing of Stage II transport (St2Tr) initiation during mastication.

Keywords:
Chewing strokesMasticationMuscle activityStage II transportSwallowing

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Area of Science:

  • Oral physiology
  • Swallowing biomechanics

Background:

  • Mastication plays a crucial role in preparing food for safe swallowing.
  • Understanding the relationship between chewing effort and swallowing control is essential for diagnosing and treating dysphagia.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate if reduced masticatory muscle activity influences the number of chewing strokes and the onset of Stage II transport (St2Tr).
  • To determine the effect of decreased chewing effort on the number of swallows required for food processing.

Main Methods:

  • Twenty healthy adults participated, performing normal and 50% reduced muscle activity (50% mastication) chewing tasks.
  • Electromyography (EMG) monitored masseter muscle activity to control chewing effort and count strokes.
  • Nasal endoscopy visualized the oropharynx to observe the sequence from food ingestion to swallowing.

Main Results:

  • Reduced masticatory muscle activity led to a significant increase in the total number of chewing strokes.
  • A notable increase in chewing strokes occurred before the initiation of Stage II transport (pre-St2Tr).
  • The number of swallows was not significantly affected by the reduced chewing muscle activity.

Conclusions:

  • Reduced masticatory muscle activity alters chewing patterns, increasing the number of strokes, particularly before Stage II transport.
  • The study supports the hypothesis that decreased chewing effort impacts chewing stroke count and St2Tr occurrence.
  • The number of swallows was not found to be dependent on the reduction in chewing muscle activity.