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meta-Directing Deactivators: –NO2, –CN, –CHO, –⁠CO2R, –COR, –CO2H01:13

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All meta-directing substituents are deactivating groups. These substituents withdraw electrons from the aromatic ring, making the ring less reactive toward electrophilic substitution. For example, the nitration of nitrobenzene is 100,000 times slower than that of benzene because of the deactivating effect of the nitro group. The first step in an electrophilic aromatic substitution is the addition of an electrophile to form a resonance-stabilized carbocation. The energy diagrams for...
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Secondary amines react with nitrous acid to form N-nitrosamines, as depicted in Figure 1. Nitrous acid, a weak and unstable acid, is formed in situ from an aqueous solution of sodium nitrite and strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, in cold conditions. In the presence of an acid, the nitrous acid gets protonated. The subsequent loss of water results in the formation of the electrophile known as nitrosonium ion.
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Kinetic Studies and Significance
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Ultra-power-efficient 2 × 2 Si Mach-Zehnder interferometer optical switch based on III-V/Si hybrid MOS phase shifter.

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    Summary

    We developed an ultra-power-efficient optical switch using hybrid III-V/Si metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) phase shifters. This technology offers low power consumption (0.18 nW) and fast switching (<20 ns) for silicon photonics.

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    Area of Science:

    • Photonics and Optical Engineering
    • Materials Science
    • Semiconductor Devices

    Background:

    • Silicon photonics is crucial for integrated circuits, but efficient optical phase control remains a challenge.
    • Existing thermo-optic phase shifters consume significant power, limiting scalability.
    • Hybrid integration of III-V materials with silicon offers potential for enhanced device performance.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To demonstrate an ultra-power-efficient 2x2 optical switch.
    • To investigate the performance of III-V/Si hybrid metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) phase shifters.
    • To enable low-loss, high-speed optical switching for large-scale silicon photonic integrated circuits.

    Main Methods:

    • Fabrication of a 2x2 Mach-Zehnder interferometer optical switch.
    • Integration of III-V/Si hybrid MOS capacitors as phase shifters.
    • Utilizing multimode interference couplers with tapered ports for efficient coupling.

    Main Results:

    • Achieved ultra-low power consumption of 0.18 nW for switching, a 10^7 times reduction compared to thermo-optic phase shifters.
    • Demonstrated low-crosstalk and broadband switching capabilities.
    • Attained a switching time of less than 20 ns.

    Conclusions:

    • The III-V/Si hybrid MOS phase shifter enables ultra-power-efficient optical switching.
    • This technology is suitable for low-loss, high-speed optical phase control in large-scale silicon photonic integrated circuits.
    • The developed switch is a significant advancement for energy-efficient optical communication and computing.