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Halogens

Halogens

Group 17 elements, known as halogens, are nonmetals. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine a solid. Astatine is a highly unstable radioactive element, so currently, most of its properties are unknown due to its short half-life. Tennessine is a synthetic element also predicted to be in this group.

Valence Bond Theory

Valence Bond Theory

Overview of Valence Bond Theory

Bond Energies and Bond Lengths

Bond Energies and Bond Lengths

Stable molecules exist because covalent bonds hold the atoms together. The strength of a covalent bond is measured by the energy required to break it, that is, the energy necessary to separate the bonded atoms. Separating any pair of bonded atoms requires energy — the stronger a bond, the greater the energy required to break it.

Peptide Bonds

Peptide Bonds

A peptide bond covalently attaches amino acids through a dehydration reaction. One amino acid's carboxyl group and another amino acid's amino group combine, releasing a water molecule. The resulting bond is the peptide bond. The products that such linkages form are peptides. As more amino acids join this growing chain, the resulting chain is a polypeptide. Each polypeptide has a free amino group at one end. This end has the N-terminal, or the amino-terminal, and the other end has a free...

Bonding in Metals

Bonding in Metals

Metallic bonds are formed between two metal atoms. A simplified model to describe metallic bonding has been developed by Paul Drüde called the “Electron Sea Model”.

Ionic Bonds

Ionic Bonds

Overview
When atoms gain or lose electrons to achieve a more stable electron configuration they form ions. Ionic bonds are electrostatic attractions between ions with opposite charges. Ionic compounds are rigid and brittle when solid and may dissociate into their constituent ions in water. Covalent compounds, by contrast, remain intact unless a chemical reaction breaks them.
Opposing Charges Hold Ions Together in Ionic Compounds
Ionic bonds are reversible electrostatic interactions between ions...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 30, 2026

From Molecules to Materials: Engineering New Ionic Liquid Crystals Through Halogen Bonding

From Molecules to Materials: Engineering New Ionic Liquid Crystals Through Halogen Bonding

Published on: March 24, 2018

Halogen Bonding Interactions for Aromatic and Nonaromatic Explosive Detection.

Arjun K A Jaini¹, Lillian B Hughes¹, Michael M Kitimet¹

¹Department of Chemistry, Gottwald Center for the Sciences , University of Richmond , Richmond , Virginia 23173 , United States.

|January 24, 2019

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

New halogen-based sensors show promise for rapid explosive detection. Computational and experimental results highlight iodine sensors for enhanced sensitivity and accuracy in identifying explosive compounds.

Keywords:

carbon nanotube-based sensor chemiresistive cyclohexanone explosive detection halogen bonding

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Area of Science:

Materials Science
Computational Chemistry
Analytical Chemistry

Background:

Effective detection of explosive materials is crucial for security applications.
Current sensing technologies require improvement for speed, accuracy, and ease of use.
Halogen bonding presents a potential mechanism for selective explosive detection.

Purpose of the Study:

To computationally evaluate halogen bonding interactions for explosive sensing.
To design and synthesize novel halogen-based sensor molecules.
To experimentally validate sensor performance for detecting explosive model compounds.

Main Methods:

Density functional theory (DFT) calculations to determine interaction energies and geometries.
Synthesis of 1,4-dihalobenzene derivatives as sensor molecules.
Fabrication of sensors on interdigitated array electrodes using single-walled carbon nanotubes.
Amperometric measurements to assess sensor response to explosive model compounds.

Main Results:

DFT predicted strong, directional halogen bonding between sensor models and nitro-explosives.
Iodine-based sensors exhibited the strongest predicted interactions due to iodine's properties.
Synthesized sensors demonstrated responsiveness to explosive model compounds, with iodo-substituted variants showing the largest signals.
Sensor performance correlated with concentration, with good response and recovery times.

Conclusions:

Halogen bonding is a viable strategy for designing selective explosive sensors.
Iodine-based sensors offer superior performance for detecting nitro-containing explosives.
The developed sensor platform shows potential for practical, rapid explosive detection.