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Updated: Jan 30, 2026

Fecal Glucocorticoid Analysis: Non-invasive Adrenal Monitoring in Equids
Published on: April 25, 2016
Repetitive switching between DNA-binding modes enables target finding by the glucocorticoid receptor
Veer I P Keizer1, Stefano Coppola2, Adriaan B Houtsmuller3,4
1Animal Sciences and Health, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, 2333CC Leiden, The Netherlands.
Abstract:
Transcription factor mobility is a determining factor in the regulation of gene expression. Here, we have studied the intranuclear dynamics of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) by using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching and single-molecule microscopy. First, we have described the dynamic states in which the GR occurs. Second, we have analyzed the transitions between these states by using a continuous-time Markov chain model and functionally investigated these states by making specific mutations in the DNA-binding domain. This analysis revealed that the GR diffuses freely through the nucleus and, once it leaves this free diffusion state, most often enters a repetitive switching mode. In this mode it alternates between slow diffusion as a result of brief nonspecific DNA-binding events, and a state of stable binding to specific DNA target sites. This repetitive switching mechanism results in a compact search strategy that facilitates finding of DNA target sites by the GR.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.
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