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According to Charles Cooley, we base our image on what we think other people see (Cooley 1902). We imagine how we must appear to others, then react to this speculation. We don certain clothes, prepare our hair in a particular manner, wear makeup, use cologne, and the like—all with the notion that our presentation of ourselves is going to affect how others perceive us. We expect a certain reaction, and, if lucky, we get the one we desire and feel good about it. But more than that, Cooley...
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Suppose a positive test charge moves away from a positive static charge, then the Coulomb force does positive work, and its electric potential energy decreases. The potential energy per unit charge is defined as the electric potential. The electric potential is independent of the test charge.
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Sensory receptors play an integral part in comprehending our external and internal environments. They receive diverse stimuli, converting them into the nervous system's electrochemical signals. This conversion occurs as the stimulus alters the sensory neuron's cell membrane potential, instigating the generation of an action potential. This action potential is subsequently transmitted to the central nervous system (CNS), which integrates with other sensory data or higher cognitive...
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Making sense of differences in pneumococcal serotype replacement.

Joseph A Lewnard1, William P Hanage2

  • 1Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.

The Lancet. Infectious Diseases
|February 3, 2019
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Serotype replacement in invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) varies geographically. The UK sees rising non-vaccine IPD after PCV13 introduction, unlike the stable US rates, prompting further research into causes.

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Area of Science:

  • Epidemiology
  • Vaccinology
  • Public Health

Background:

  • Invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) serotype replacement is a global concern.
  • The 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) introduction has shown varied impacts on IPD epidemiology.
  • Significant geographical differences in PCV13's effect on non-vaccine serotype IPD exist between the UK and USA.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the reasons behind divergent serotype replacement patterns in IPD.
  • To explore potential factors influencing the differing public health outcomes of PCV13 in the UK and USA.
  • To identify research priorities for understanding and managing pneumococcal serotype replacement.

Main Methods:

  • Comparative analysis of IPD surveillance data from the UK and USA.
  • Review of epidemiological factors including vaccination schedules and population risk.
  • Exploration of potential contributions from transmission dynamics and pathogen evolution.

Main Results:

  • The UK experienced an increase in non-vaccine serotype IPD, particularly in older adults, post-PCV13 introduction.
  • The USA has not reported similar increases in non-vaccine serotype IPD incidence in children or older adults.
  • No single factor adequately explains the observed epidemiological divergence between the two countries.

Conclusions:

  • Geographical variations in serotype replacement post-PCV13 underscore the complexity of pneumococcal epidemiology.
  • Current evidence suggests a multifactorial explanation for the differing outcomes in the UK and USA.
  • Further research is crucial to guide future pneumococcal vaccine policy and mitigate the threat of serotype replacement.