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Cardiac output (CO), the amount of blood the heart pumps per minute, is a parameter in cardiovascular physiology determined by stroke volume and heart rate. Stroke volume, the amount of blood pushed from one of the ventricles per heartbeat, is influenced by preload, afterload, and contractility.
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Cardiac Output
Cardiac output (CO) refers to the total amount of blood ejected by one of the ventricles in liters per minute (L/min). In a resting adult, CO ranges from 5 to 6 L/min, adjusting according to the body's metabolic requirements.
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Regular physical activity is essential for maintaining cardiovascular health, with aerobic exercises being particularly effective. According to the American Heart Association, 150 minutes of moderate to intense aerobic exercise per week is recommended for a healthy heart. Aerobic activities may include brisk walking, running, bicycling, cross-country skiing, and swimming, ideally performed three to five times per week.
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The heart's primary function is to pump blood throughout the body, maintaining a balance between blood sent out (cardiac output) and blood returning (venous return). If this balance is disrupted, it can result in congestive heart failure (CHF), a severe condition where the heart becomes an inefficient pump, leading to inadequate blood circulation.
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The human body predominantly expels water through the urinary system. On average, an individual generates around 1.5 liters of urine each day. This amount can fluctuate based on how well a person is hydrated, but a critical minimum quantity of urine must be produced to ensure the body's proper functioning. Daily, the kidneys remove 600 to 1200 milliosmoles of dissolved substances, effectively excreting excess minerals and water-soluble toxins such as creatinine, urea, and uric acid from the...
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Most plants use the C3 pathway for carbon fixation. However, some plants, such as sugar cane, corn, and cacti that grow in hot conditions, use alternative pathways to fix carbon and conserve energy loss due to photorespiration. Photorespiration is the process that occurs when the oxygen concentration is high. Under such conditions, the rubisco enzyme in the Calvin cycle binds O2 instead of CO2, which halts photosynthesis and consumes energy.
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Related Experiment Video

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An Adoptive Transfer Model of Rheumatoid Arthritis in Mice
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Rheumatoid arthritis reprograms circadian output pathways.

Toryn M Poolman1,2, Julie Gibbs1, Amy L Walker1

  • 1Division of Digestion, Endocrinology and Metabolism, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.

Arthritis Research & Therapy
|February 8, 2019
PubMed
Summary

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) disrupts the body's internal clock, altering gene expression in immune cells and systemic processes like ceramide synthesis. This circadian reprogramming in RA has implications for disease management and future therapies.

Keywords:
ArthritisCeramideCircadianImmune cellRheumatoid arthritis

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Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Chronobiology
  • Systems Biology

Background:

  • Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease with complex systemic effects.
  • Circadian rhythms regulate numerous physiological processes, and their disruption is implicated in various diseases.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the impact of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) on circadian rhythmicity using systems biology approaches.
  • To identify RA-specific molecular and cellular changes related to time-of-day variations.

Main Methods:

  • Recruitment of adult RA patients and healthy controls.
  • Measurement of sleep profiles, saliva, serum, and peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes (PBML).
  • Transcriptome (RNA-SEQ), proteome (LC-MS/MS), and lipidomic analyses, including mouse collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) models.

Main Results:

  • RA significantly altered time-of-day gene expression in PBML, revealing a time-of-day-specific RA transcriptome.
  • Increased phospho-STAT3 and acquired time-of-day variation in phospho-ATF2 were observed in RA patients.
  • Circadian rhythmicity of serum ceramides increased in RA and in mouse arthritis, linked to hepatic ceramide synthases.

Conclusions:

  • RA induces a gain in circadian rhythmicity in both immune cells and systemically.
  • This systemic rewiring of circadian patterns, involving ceramide synthesis and joint inflammation, suggests a significant impact on disease processes.
  • Circadian reprogramming in RA has implications for understanding inflammatory comorbidities and developing time-of-day therapeutics.