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Pulmonary embolism (PE) occurs when a thrombus, fat or air embolus, amniotic fluid, or tumor tissue blocks one or more pulmonary arteries. These blockages originate in the venous system or the right side of the heart.EtiologyPE primarily arises from deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and other hypercoagulable states, such as inherited thrombophilias. Additional etiological factors include venous stasis, commonly seen in obesity, and endothelial injury from surgery and trauma. Less common causes include...
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Diagnosing Pulmonary EmbolismDiagnosing pulmonary embolism (PE) involves clinical assessment and advanced imaging tests. The preferred diagnostic tool is the spiral (helical) CT scan or CT angiography (CTA), which uses intravenous contrast media to visualize the pulmonary vasculature and identify emboli.A ventilation-perfusion (V/Q) scan is an alternative for patients unable to receive contrast media. This scan includes both perfusion and ventilation scanning. Perfusion scanning involves...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 29, 2026

Comprehensive Endovascular and Open Surgical Management of Cerebral Arteriovenous Malformations
14:58

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Curative Embolization of Arteriovenous Malformations.

Michael George Zaki Ghali1, Peter Kan2, Gavin W Britz3

  • 1Department of Neurological Surgery, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA; Department of Neurological Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA.

World Neurosurgery
|February 9, 2019
PubMed
Summary

Arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) pose a significant hemorrhage risk. While multimodal treatments are common, curative embolization is emerging as a safe and effective option, with innovation driving improved obliteration rates.

Keywords:
AVMsArteriovenous malformationsCurativeEmbolizationSpetzler-MartinTransarterialTransvenous

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Area of Science:

  • Neurology
  • Neurosurgery
  • Interventional Radiology

Background:

  • Arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) carry a substantial cumulative risk of hemorrhage.
  • Current treatment strategies include observation, microsurgery, radiosurgery, embolization, and multimodal approaches.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the role of embolization in the treatment of AVMs.
  • To discuss the evolving concept of curative embolization for AVMs.

Main Methods:

  • Review of current treatment paradigms for AVMs.
  • Discussion of Spetzler-Martin grading system for treatment selection.
  • Analysis of embolization as a primary or adjunct therapy.

Main Results:

  • Spetzler-Martin grades I-II AVMs are typically resected; grade III often requires multimodal therapy including embolization; grades IV-V are usually observed.
  • Embolization is frequently used as a preoperative adjunct for microsurgery or radiosurgery.
  • Curative embolization is an emerging treatment with growing evidence of safety and efficacy.

Conclusions:

  • Treatment selection for AVMs depends on lesion characteristics and grading.
  • Embolization is increasingly recognized for its potential as a curative treatment for AVMs.
  • Advancements in endovascular techniques and technologies are crucial for improving AVM obliteration rates through embolization.