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Lung Capacity01:47

Lung Capacity

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The air in the lungs is measured in volumes and capacities. Lung volume measures reflect the amount of air taken in, released, or left over after a lung function, like a single inhalation. Lung capacity measures are sums of two or more lung volume measures.
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Electrical Current01:10

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Electrical current is defined as the rate at which charge flows. When there is a large current present, such as that used to run a refrigerator, a large amount of charge moves through the wire in a small amount of time. If the current is small, such as that used to operate a handheld calculator, a small amount of charge moves through the circuit over a long period of time. The SI unit for current is the ampere (A), named for the French physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836).
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The total amount of current flowing through one unit value of a cross-sectional area is referred to as current density. If the current flow is uniform, the amount of current flowing through a conductor is the same at all points along the conductor, even if the conductor area varies. The current density consists of the local magnitude and direction of the charge flow, which varies from point to point. Current density is measured in amperes per meter square, and direction is defined as the net...
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Since eddy currents occur only in conductors, magnets can separate metals from other materials. For example, in a recycling center, trash is dumped in batches down a ramp, beneath which lies a powerful magnet. Conductors in the trash are slowed by eddy currents, while nonmetals in the trash move on, separating from the metals. This works for all metals, not just ferromagnetic ones.
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Displacement Current01:19

Displacement Current

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Ampère's law, in its usual form, does not work in places where the current changes with time and is not steady. Thus, Maxwell suggested including an additional contribution, called the displacement current, Id, to the real conduction current I.
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Charge and Current

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Electric charge is the most fundamental quantity in an electric circuit. The effects of electric charge are encountered daily, such as when a wool sweater sticks to the human body or when a person receives a shock while walking on a carpet.
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Updated: Jan 29, 2026

Orthotopic Left Lung Transplantation in Rats
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Immunosuppression for Lung Transplantation: Current and Future.

Satish Chandrashekaran1, Stacy A Crow Pharm2,3, Sadia Z Shah4

  • 1Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Lung Transplantation Program, University of Florida Gainesville, FL.

Current Transplantation Reports
|February 12, 2019
PubMed
Summary

Lung transplant immunosuppression is advancing with new drugs and strategies to reduce toxicity. Research is ongoing to optimize these treatments for better patient outcomes in lung transplantation.

Keywords:
Lung transplantationcalcineurin-sparing regimensglobal immune competenceimmunosuppression

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Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Transplantation Medicine
  • Pharmacology

Background:

  • Lung transplantation volumes are increasing globally.
  • There is a critical need for improved immunosuppressive therapies with reduced toxicity in lung transplant recipients.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review recent advancements in lung transplant immunosuppression.
  • To highlight novel drugs and strategies being investigated for lung transplantation.

Main Methods:

  • Review of current literature on lung transplant immunosuppression.
  • Summary of novel immunosuppressive agents and monitoring techniques.

Main Results:

  • New immunosuppressive medications, including co-stimulation blockers (e.g., belatacept) and mTOR inhibitors (e.g., everolimus), are being explored.
  • Calcineurin-sparing regimens are being developed to mitigate nephrotoxicity.
  • Immune monitoring assays (e.g., Immuknow, interferon-gamma response) are gaining importance for assessing immune competence.

Conclusions:

  • Lung transplant immunosuppression is an evolving field with new drug developments and optimization strategies.
  • Further multicenter randomized trials are necessary to strengthen the evidence base for these emerging approaches.