Jove
Visualize
Contact Us
JoVE
x logofacebook logolinkedin logoyoutube logo
ABOUT JoVE
OverviewLeadershipBlogJoVE Help Center
AUTHORS
Publishing ProcessEditorial BoardScope & PoliciesPeer ReviewFAQSubmit
LIBRARIANS
TestimonialsSubscriptionsAccessResourcesLibrary Advisory BoardFAQ
RESEARCH
JoVE JournalMethods CollectionsJoVE Encyclopedia of ExperimentsArchive
EDUCATION
JoVE CoreJoVE BusinessJoVE Science EducationJoVE Lab ManualFaculty Resource CenterFaculty Site
Terms & Conditions of Use
Privacy Policy
Policies

Related Concept Videos

meta-Directing Deactivators: –NO2, –CN, –CHO, –⁠CO2R, –COR, –CO2H01:13

meta-Directing Deactivators: –NO2, –CN, –CHO, –⁠CO2R, –COR, –CO2H

6.7K
All meta-directing substituents are deactivating groups. These substituents withdraw electrons from the aromatic ring, making the ring less reactive toward electrophilic substitution. For example, the nitration of nitrobenzene is 100,000 times slower than that of benzene because of the deactivating effect of the nitro group. The first step in an electrophilic aromatic substitution is the addition of an electrophile to form a resonance-stabilized carbocation. The energy diagrams for...
6.7K
Loss of Carboxy Group as CO2: Decarboxylation of Malonic Acid Derivatives01:35

Loss of Carboxy Group as CO2: Decarboxylation of Malonic Acid Derivatives

2.6K
Just like β-keto acids—which upon thermal decarboxylation form ketones—β-dicarboxylic acids undergo decarboxylation to generate monocarboxylic acids with the liberation of carbon dioxide.
2.6K
2° Amines to N-Nitrosamines: Reaction with NaNO201:20

2° Amines to N-Nitrosamines: Reaction with NaNO2

5.4K
Secondary amines react with nitrous acid to form N-nitrosamines, as depicted in Figure 1. Nitrous acid, a weak and unstable acid, is formed in situ from an aqueous solution of sodium nitrite and strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, in cold conditions. In the presence of an acid, the nitrous acid gets protonated. The subsequent loss of water results in the formation of the electrophile known as nitrosonium ion.
5.4K
SN2 Reaction: Kinetics02:14

SN2 Reaction: Kinetics

10.3K
Kinetic Studies and Significance
In a chemical reaction, a relationship exists between the concentration of reactants and the rate at which the reaction proceeds. The study to measure this relationship is known as the kinetics of a chemical reaction. Kinetic studies are used to deduce the rate law of a chemical reaction, which provides information about the species involved during the transition state of the rate-determining step. Thus, kinetic studies help to derive the mechanism of a...
10.3K
SN2 Reaction: Mechanism02:27

SN2 Reaction: Mechanism

17.3K
The kinetic studies of SN2 reactions suggest an essential feature of its mechanism: it is a single-step process without intermediates. Here, both the nucleophile and the substrate participate in the rate-determining step.
The presence of the more electronegative halogen in the substrate creates a polarized carbon-halide bond. The halide pulls the electron cloud generating an electrophilic center at the carbon atom. Thus, the carbon atom carries a partial positive charge while the halide has a...
17.3K
SN2 Reaction: Transition State02:26

SN2 Reaction: Transition State

11.9K
An SN2 reaction of an alkyl halide is a single-step process in which bond formation between the nucleophile and the substrate and bond breaking between the substrate and the halide occurs simultaneously through a transition state without forming an intermediate.
When the nucleophile approaches the electrophilic carbon with its lone pairs, the halide acts as a leaving group and moves away with the electron-pair bonded to the carbon. Dotted partial bonds represent the bonds being formed or broken...
11.9K

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by
Same author

Blocking CD30 on CD19 CAR T cells augments their functional capacities against B-cell leukemia/lymphoma.

Frontiers in immunology·2026
Same author

Increased expression of CD36 and CD163 in clear cell renal cell carcinoma suggests an association between lipid transport and an "M2-like" macrophage phenotype.

Frontiers in immunology·2026
Same author

The effects of hypoxia inducible factor-1α in myeloid cells and a high-salt diet in a mouse model of orthodontic tooth movement.

Korean journal of orthodontics·2026
Same author

Lactic acid promotes an MDSC-like phenotype via HIF1α stabilization with impact on prognosis in renal cell carcinoma.

Cancer letters·2025
Same author

The microbial metabolite desaminotyrosine protects against graft-versus-host disease via mTORC1 and STING-dependent intestinal regeneration.

Nature communications·2025
Same author

MetaboSERV-a platform for selecting, exchanging, and visualizing metabolomics data with controlled data access.

GigaScience·2025
Same journal

RETRACTED: Kim et al. The Angiogenesis Inhibitor ALS-L1023 from Lemon-Balm Leaves Attenuates High-Fat Diet-Induced Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Through Regulating the Visceral Adipose-Tissue Function. <i>Int. J. Mol. Sci.</i> 2017, <i>18</i>, 846.

International journal of molecular sciences·2026
Same journal

Correction: Mahmud et al. Thymoquinone Attenuates NF-κβ Signalling Activation in Retinal Pigment Epithelium Cells Under AMD-Mimicking Conditions. <i>Int. J. Mol. Sci.</i> 2025, <i>26</i>, 11473.

International journal of molecular sciences·2026
Same journal

Correction: Borovikov et al. The Twisting and Untwisting of Actin and Tropomyosin Filaments Are Involved in the Molecular Mechanisms of Muscle Contraction, and Their Disruption Can Result in Muscle Disorders. <i>Int. J. Mol. Sci</i>. 2025, <i>26</i>, 6705.

International journal of molecular sciences·2026
Same journal

Correction: Molagoda et al. Flavonoid Glycosides from <i>Ziziphus jujuba</i> var. <i>inermis</i> (Bunge) Rehder Seeds Inhibit α-Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone-Mediated Melanogenesis. <i>Int. J. Mol. Sci.</i> 2021, <i>22</i>, 7701.

International journal of molecular sciences·2026
Same journal

Correction: Guo et al. Integrated Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Analysis Reveals the Molecular Regulatory Mechanism of Flavonoid Biosynthesis in Maize Roots Under Lead Stress. <i>Int. J. Mol. Sci.</i> 2024, <i>25</i>, 6050.

International journal of molecular sciences·2026
Same journal

Correction: Chang et al. Improvement of Carbon Tetrachloride-Induced Acute Hepatic Failure by Transplantation of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Without Reprogramming Factor c-Myc. <i>Int. J. Mol. Sci.</i> 2012, <i>13</i>, 3598-3617.

International journal of molecular sciences·2026
See all related articles

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 29, 2026

Generation of Human Monocyte-derived Dendritic Cells from Whole Blood
07:35

Generation of Human Monocyte-derived Dendritic Cells from Whole Blood

Published on: December 24, 2016

21.2K

D-2-Hydroxyglutarate and L-2-Hydroxyglutarate Inhibit IL-12 Secretion by Human Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cells.

Ines Ugele1, Zugey Elizabeth Cárdenas-Conejo2, Kathrin Hammon3

  • 1Ear, Nose and Throat Department, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg 93053, Germany. ines.ugele@ukr.de.

International Journal of Molecular Sciences
|February 13, 2019
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Elevated D-2-hydroxyglutarate (2-HG) and L-2-hydroxyglutarate (2-HG) in tumors impair dendritic cell (DC) activation. These oncometabolites reduce IL-12 secretion and alter DC metabolism, potentially limiting anti-tumor immunity.

Keywords:
activationdendritic cellshydroxyglutarateisocitrate dehydrogenasetumor environment

More Related Videos

Author Spotlight: Dendritic Cells Maturation Using Sialidases-Based Enzymatic Treatment of the Cell Surface
13:36

Author Spotlight: Dendritic Cells Maturation Using Sialidases-Based Enzymatic Treatment of the Cell Surface

Published on: October 20, 2023

4.2K
Characterization of Human Monocyte-derived Dendritic Cells by Imaging Flow Cytometry: A Comparison between Two Monocyte Isolation Protocols
08:31

Characterization of Human Monocyte-derived Dendritic Cells by Imaging Flow Cytometry: A Comparison between Two Monocyte Isolation Protocols

Published on: October 18, 2016

14.3K

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jan 29, 2026

Generation of Human Monocyte-derived Dendritic Cells from Whole Blood
07:35

Generation of Human Monocyte-derived Dendritic Cells from Whole Blood

Published on: December 24, 2016

21.2K
Author Spotlight: Dendritic Cells Maturation Using Sialidases-Based Enzymatic Treatment of the Cell Surface
13:36

Author Spotlight: Dendritic Cells Maturation Using Sialidases-Based Enzymatic Treatment of the Cell Surface

Published on: October 20, 2023

4.2K
Characterization of Human Monocyte-derived Dendritic Cells by Imaging Flow Cytometry: A Comparison between Two Monocyte Isolation Protocols
08:31

Characterization of Human Monocyte-derived Dendritic Cells by Imaging Flow Cytometry: A Comparison between Two Monocyte Isolation Protocols

Published on: October 18, 2016

14.3K

Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Metabolic Oncology
  • Cell Biology

Background:

  • Mutations in isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) lead to D-2-hydroxyglutarate (2-HG) accumulation.
  • Reduced L-2-hydroxyglutarate (HG)-dehydrogenase expression causes L-2-HG accumulation.
  • D-2-HG and L-2-HG impact T-cell function, but their effects on human myeloid cells are unknown.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the impact of D-2-HG and L-2-HG on the activation and maturation of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (DCs).

Main Methods:

  • Dendritic cells (DCs) were treated with D-2-HG and L-2-HG.
  • Cell viability, CD83 expression, cytokine secretion (IL-12, IL-6, IL-10, TNF), and gene expression of IL-12 subunits were analyzed.
  • Signaling pathways (NFkB, Akt, p38), cellular metabolism, and oxygen consumption were assessed.
  • The effect of ATP synthase inhibition on IL-12 secretion was evaluated.

Main Results:

  • 2-HG was taken up by DCs without affecting cell viability.
  • D-2-HG and L-2-HG diminished CD83 expression and significantly reduced IL-12 secretion.
  • Gene expression of IL-12 subunits (p35/IL-12A and p40/IL-12B) decreased, while NFkB, Akt, and p38 pathways remained unaltered.
  • 2-HG reprogrammed LPS-induced metabolic changes, increased oxygen consumption, and oligomycin partially reverted the IL-12 reduction.

Conclusions:

  • Both D-2-HG and L-2-HG enantiomers can limit dendritic cell (DC) activation in the tumor microenvironment.
  • 2-HG affects DC maturation and function by altering IL-12 production and cellular metabolism.
  • These findings suggest a mechanism by which oncometabolites can suppress anti-tumor immune responses.