Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia. The four categories of diabetes are type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, other specific types of diabetes, and gestational diabetes.
Type 1 diabetes is characterized by autoimmune-mediated destruction of pancreatic β cells, with environmental factors potentially triggering this process in genetically susceptible individuals. Despite many not having a family history, certain genes increase susceptibility,...

Christian de Duve discovered “autophagy,” a process in which cellular components are engulfed by membrane-bound organelles called autophagosomes. The autophagosomes then fuse with lysosomes to digest the enclosed contents. Autophagy is generally activated in cells to prevent cell death. However, cell death is triggered when the damage is beyond repair.
Autophagy and Apoptosis
Autophagy can activate apoptosis. In normal conditions, the autophagy activating protein Beclin-1 and...

Cell death is an essential process where the body gets rid of old or damaged cells. Cell proliferation and death need to be balanced, as an imbalance between the two may lead to cancer or autoimmune diseases.
Cell death was observed in the early 19th century, but there was no experimental evidence to prove it. In 1842, Carl Vogt first discovered cell death in a metamorphic toad; however, it was not termed ‘cell death.’ Scientists discovered different cell death pathways only in the...

The therapy for diabetes aims to alleviate hyperglycemia-related symptoms, prevent acute metabolic decompensation, and reduce chronic end-organ complications. Glycemic control is evaluated through short-term (self-monitoring, continuous glucose monitoring) and long-term (A1c, fructosamine) metrics, enabling near real-time tracking of blood glucose levels and reflecting glycemic control over specific time frames.
Insulin remains the cornerstone of treatment for most patients with type 1 and many...

Chronic stress has been linked to both the onset and progression of serious health conditions, including Type 2 diabetes and cancer. Type 2 diabetes, a widespread chronic illness, is closely associated with obesity and insulin resistance, both of which often worsen under stress. Studies indicate that men experiencing high levels of chronic stress face a 45% higher risk of developing diabetes compared to those with minimal stress. Stress triggers physiological responses that elevate blood...

Type 2 diabetes, characterized by insulin resistance, arises when the insulin receptors on cells lose responsiveness to insulin, diminishing the cell's capacity to take up glucose, resulting in elevated blood glucose levels. To receive a diagnosis of Type 2 diabetes, a series of blood glucose tests are necessary to assess whether the blood glucose falls within normal parameters. If the result is out of the normal range, a patient may be diagnosed as prediabetic or diabetic, depending on the...