Size-dependent toxicity of ThO₂ nanoparticles to green algae Chlorella pyrenoidosa

Thorium (Th) is a natural radioactive element present in the environment and has the potential to be used as a clean nuclear fuel. Relatively little is known about the aquatic toxicity of Th, especially in nanoparticulate form, which may be the main chemical species of Th in the natural waters. In this study, impacts of ThO₂ nanoparticles (NPs) with two different sizes (52 ± 5 nm, s-ThO₂vs. 141 ± 6 nm, b-ThO₂) on a green alga Chlorella pyrenoidosa (C. pyrenoidosa) were evaluated. Results indicated that C. pyrenoidosa was more sensitive to s-ThO₂ (96-h EC₃₀ = 64.1 μM) than b-ThO₂ (96-h EC₃₀ = 100.2 μM). Exposure to 200 μM of ThO₂ NPs reduced the chlorophyll-a and chlorophyll-b contents of the algal cells. At 96 h, SEM and TEM showed that more agglomerates of s-ThO₂ than those of b-ThO₂ were attached onto the surface of algal cells. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and membrane damage were induced after the attachment of high concentrations of ThO₂ NPs. The heteroagglomeration between ThO₂ NPs and algal cells and increased oxidative stress might play important roles in the toxicity of ThO₂ NPs. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on aquatic toxicity of ThO₂ NPs.