Search research articles

ABOUT JoVE

Overview Leadership Blog JoVE Help Center

AUTHORS

Publishing Process Editorial Board Scope & Policies Peer Review FAQ Submit

LIBRARIANS

Testimonials Subscriptions Access Resources Library Advisory Board FAQ

RESEARCH

JoVE Journal Methods Collections JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments Archive

EDUCATION

JoVE Core JoVE Business JoVE Science Education JoVE Lab Manual Faculty Resource Center Faculty Site

Terms & Conditions of Use

Related Concept Videos

What are Cells?

What are Cells?

Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium or trillions of them, e.g., in humans. No matter what organism a cell is a part of, they share specific characteristics.
Basic Characteristics of Cells
A living cell has a plasma membrane, a bilayer of lipids that separates the aqueous solution inside the cell called the cytoplasm from the outside environment.
Furthermore, a living cell possesses genetic information...

What are Cells?

What are Cells?

Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium, or trillions of them, e.g., in humans. No matter what organism a cell is a part of, they share specific characteristics.
Basic Characteristics of Cells
A living cell has a plasma membrane, a bilayer of lipids that separates the aqueous solution inside the cell called the cytoplasm from the outside environment.
Furthermore, a living cell possesses genetic information...

Concentration Cells

Concentration Cells

A concentration cell is a type of a voltaic cell constructed by connecting two almost identical half-cells, both based on the same half-reaction and using the same electrode, differing only in the concentration of one redox species. A concentration cell's potential, therefore, is determined only by the concentration difference of the particular redox species.
Consider the following voltaic cell:

What is Cell Signaling?

What is Cell Signaling?

Despite the protective membrane that separates a cell from the environment, cells need the ability to detect and respond to environmental changes. Additionally, cells often need to communicate with one another. Unicellular and multicellular organisms use a variety of cell signaling mechanisms to communicate to respond to the environment.

Chemistry of the Cell

Chemistry of the Cell

The cell is chemically composed of water, organic molecules and inorganic ions.
Water
The polarity of the water molecule and its resulting hydrogen bonding makes water a unique substance with special properties that are intimately tied to the processes of life. Life originally evolved in an aqueous environment, and most of an organism’s cellular chemistry and metabolism occur inside the aqueous contents of the cell’s cytoplasm. Special properties of water are its high heat capacity...

Hair Cells

Hair Cells

Hair cells are the sensory receptors of the auditory system—they transduce mechanical sound waves into electrical energy that the nervous system can understand. Hair cells are located in the organ of Corti within the cochlea of the inner ear, between the basilar and tectorial membranes. The actual sensory receptors are called inner hair cells. The outer hair cells serve other functions, such as sound amplification in the cochlea, and are not discussed in detail here.

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by

Same author

Let your light shine down.

Science immunology·2026

Same author

A novel hyperactive <i>BCR::ABL1</i> <sup><i>e6a3</i></sup> variant confers resistance to combined asciminib plus ponatinib therapy.

medRxiv : the preprint server for health sciences·2026

Same author

The Clinicopathologic and Genomic Features of Mature Versus Blastic Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cell Neoplasms Arising From Chronic Myeloid Neoplasms.

The American journal of surgical pathology·2026

Same author

Blastic Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cell Neoplasm: Updates in Diagnostic and Molecular Pathology.

Surgical pathology clinics·2026

Same author

Structural variation tunes apoptotic responses to drive immune escape in melanoma.

Science immunology·2026

Same author

Early persistence of recipient stem-cells and T-cell dysregulation are associated with relapse after transplant in AML/MDS.

bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology·2025

Same journal

Evolution and development of innate immune memory.

Science immunology·2026

Same journal

The evolving biology of T cell memory: A dynamic continuum of function and persistence.

Science immunology·2026

Same journal

Memories that endure.

Science immunology·2026

Same journal

ILC2s shoot 4 making 13s.

Science immunology·2026

Same journal

Molecular and tissue regulation of memory B cells.

Science immunology·2026

Same journal

A breath of fresh AIR in novel CAR T cell design.

Science immunology·2026

See all related articles

Search research articles

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 28, 2026

Studying Interactions between Myeloid Cells and CAR T Cells In Vitro and In Vivo

Studying Interactions between Myeloid Cells and CAR T Cells In Vitro and In Vivo

Published on: July 25, 2025

T cells have seen it all before.

Gabriel K Griffin¹

¹Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA.

Science Immunology

|March 3, 2019

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Widespread preexisting immunity to Cas9 was found in healthy adults in two recent studies. This immunity may impact the efficacy of CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing therapies.

More Related Videos

A Novel In Vitro Wound Healing Assay to Evaluate Cell Migration

A Novel In Vitro Wound Healing Assay to Evaluate Cell Migration

Published on: March 17, 2018

Conversion of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells iPSCs into Functional Spinal and Cranial Motor Neurons Using PiggyBac Vectors

Conversion of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells iPSCs into Functional Spinal and Cranial Motor Neurons Using PiggyBac Vectors

Published on: May 1, 2019

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jan 28, 2026

Studying Interactions between Myeloid Cells and CAR T Cells In Vitro and In Vivo

Studying Interactions between Myeloid Cells and CAR T Cells In Vitro and In Vivo

Published on: July 25, 2025

A Novel In Vitro Wound Healing Assay to Evaluate Cell Migration

A Novel In Vitro Wound Healing Assay to Evaluate Cell Migration

Published on: March 17, 2018

Conversion of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells iPSCs into Functional Spinal and Cranial Motor Neurons Using PiggyBac Vectors

Conversion of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells iPSCs into Functional Spinal and Cranial Motor Neurons Using PiggyBac Vectors

Published on: May 1, 2019

Area of Science:

Biotechnology
Immunology
Genetics

Background:

CRISPR-Cas9 is a revolutionary gene-editing technology.
The effectiveness of CRISPR-Cas9 therapies could be influenced by the patient's immune system.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the prevalence of preexisting immunity to Cas9 in healthy adults.
To assess the potential impact of this immunity on gene-editing therapeutic applications.

Main Methods:

Analysis of immune responses in large cohorts of healthy individuals.
Detection of antibodies and T-cell responses against Cas9 proteins.

Main Results:

Two independent studies revealed significant levels of pre-existing immunity to Cas9 in the general adult population.
Immune responses varied among individuals, suggesting a complex interplay of factors.

Conclusions:

Preexisting immunity to Cas9 is common in healthy adults.
This widespread immunity presents a potential challenge for the clinical translation of CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing therapies, necessitating further research into immune evasion strategies.