Differences in cognitive performance and cognitive decline across European regions: a population-based prospective
Tomas Formanek1, Anna Kagstrom1, Petr Winkler2
1National Institute of Mental Health, 250 67 Klecany, Czech Republic.
Background:
A large variation in cognitive performance exists between European regions. However, it is unclear how older Europeans differ in the rate of cognitive decline.
Methods:
We analysed data from 22 181 individuals (54% women; median age 71) who participated in the Survey on Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe. Cognition was measured using tests on verbal fluency, immediate and delayed recall. We used linear regression and linear mixed effects regression to examine regional differences in the level of cognitive performance and the rate of cognitive decline.
Results:
Scandinavians had the highest baseline cognitive scores (mean standardized overall cognitive score 0.3), followed by Western Europeans (mean 0.2), Central and Eastern Europeans (mean 0.1) and individuals from Mediterranean countries (mean -0.4). These differences persisted even after adjustment for sociodemographic and clinical characteristics. The annual cognitive decline in Scandinavia (0.59%) was approximately two times greater than in Western Europe (0.28%), Central and Eastern Europe (0.25%) and Mediterranean countries (0.23%).
Discussion:
There are substantial differences in cognitive performance as well as rates of cognitive decline among the elderly throughout European regions. This might be explained by differing levels of cognitive reserve.
More Related Videos
07:30Evaluation of the Cognitive Performance of Hypertensive Patients with Silent Cerebrovascular Lesions
Published on: April 23, 2021
13:20Online Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation of Dorsomedial and Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex in Cognition Decision Making, and Cognitive Dissonance
Published on: December 5, 2025
Related Concept Videos
Cognitive Dissonance
Conservation of Declining Populations
Language and Cognition
Cognitive Therapy
Cognition and Behavior
Cognitive Learning
E. C. Tolman's theory of purposive behavior emphasizes that much behavior is goal-directed. He argued that to understand behavior, we must look at the entire sequence of actions leading to a goal. For instance, high school students study hard, not just due to past reinforcement but also to achieve the goal of getting into a good college.
Tolman introduced the idea that behavior is influenced by...
