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Information enters the brain through encoding, which is the input of information into the memory system. Once sensory information is received from the environment, the brain labels or codes it. The information is then organized with similar information and connected to existing concepts. Encoding occurs through automatic processing and effortful processing.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 27, 2026

Coherence between Brain Cortical Function and Neurocognitive Performance during Changed Gravity Conditions
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Alpha modulation during working memory encoding predicts neurocognitive impairment in ADHD.

Agatha Lenartowicz1,2, Holly Truong1,2, Giulia C Salgari1,2

  • 1Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.

Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines
|March 19, 2019
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Stimulus encoding, a key part of working memory (WM), is impaired in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This deficit impacts executive function and reading comprehension.

Keywords:
ADHDEEGacademic achievementalpha oscillationsmaintenancevisual attentionworking memory

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Child Psychology

Background:

  • Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is linked to working memory (WM) deficits.
  • The specific neural pathways causing WM impairments in ADHD remain unclear.
  • This study investigates component processes of WM in ADHD.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To replicate findings on WM component process deficits in ADHD.
  • To examine the neurocognitive implications of these deficits.
  • To explore the relationship between WM processes and executive function, ADHD symptoms, and academic achievement.

Main Methods:

  • Used electroencephalography (EEG) in 119 children (85 with ADHD, ages 7-14).
  • Quantified stimulus encoding (alpha power), vigilance (P2 potential), and WM maintenance (occipital-alpha, frontal-theta power).
  • Assessed executive function, ADHD symptoms, and academic achievement.

Main Results:

  • ADHD group showed attenuated alpha power during encoding and reduced P2 amplitude.
  • Increased occipital-alpha power during maintenance in ADHD suggested compensation for weak encoding.
  • Weak alpha modulation during encoding correlated with poorer executive function, reading comprehension, and more severe ADHD symptoms.
  • Frontal-theta effects did not replicate.

Conclusions:

  • Stimulus encoding, linked to alpha modulation, is impaired in ADHD.
  • This encoding deficit, unlike WM maintenance or vigilance, affects executive function and reading comprehension.
  • Findings highlight stimulus encoding as a critical, externally relevant WM component in ADHD.