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Atomic Orbitals02:44

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An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution function indicates the total probability of finding an electron within the thin shell at a distance r from the nucleus. The atomic orbitals have distinct shapes which are determined by l, the angular momentum quantum number. The orbitals are often drawn with a boundary surface, enclosing densest regions of the cloud.
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Hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between atoms that have formed other chemical bonds. One of these atoms is electronegative, like oxygen, and has a partial negative charge. The other is a hydrogen atom that has bonded with another electronegative atom and has a partial positive charge.
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The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter was composed of small, finite particles that they called atomos, meaning “indivisible.” Later, Aristotle and others came to the conclusion that matter consisted of various combinations of the four “elements” — fire, earth, air, and water — and could be infinitely divided. Interestingly, these philosophers...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 27, 2026

All-electronic Nanosecond-resolved Scanning Tunneling Microscopy: Facilitating the Investigation of Single Dopant Charge Dynamics
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Attosecond angular streaking and tunnelling time in atomic hydrogen.

U Satya Sainadh1, Han Xu2, Xiaoshan Wang3

  • 1Australian Attosecond Science facility, Centre for Quantum Dynamics, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia.

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|March 20, 2019
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Quantum tunnelling is instantaneous, not a finite time spent under a barrier. Experiments on hydrogen atoms confirm this, ruling out previous interpretations of tunnelling time measurements.

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Area of Science:

  • Quantum Mechanics
  • Atomic Physics
  • Quantum Optics

Background:

  • Quantum tunnelling is a phenomenon where particles pass through potential barriers, a concept absent in classical physics.
  • Debate exists on whether quantum particles spend measurable time tunnelling, intensified by attosecond metrology.
  • The hydrogen atom serves as a benchmark due to its simplicity for precise measurements and calculations.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To experimentally investigate quantum tunnelling times in atomic hydrogen using advanced techniques.
  • To compare experimental results with accurate theoretical simulations.
  • To resolve the debate on whether quantum tunnelling is instantaneous or takes a finite time.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized the attosecond angular streaking (attoclock) technique for precise electron release timing.
  • Employed momentum-space imaging for detailed electron trajectory analysis.
  • Conducted experiments on atomic hydrogen and compared data with 3D time-dependent Schrödinger equation simulations.

Main Results:

  • Excellent agreement found between experimental measurements and theoretical simulations for atomic hydrogen.
  • The Coulomb potential was identified as the cause of the electron emission angle, not finite tunnelling time.
  • An upper limit of 1.8 attoseconds was established for any tunnelling delay.

Conclusions:

  • Quantum tunnelling through a potential barrier is an instantaneous process.
  • The interpretation of measured angles as finite tunnelling times is incorrect.
  • This study provides strong evidence supporting instantaneous tunnelling in quantum mechanics.