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Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals I

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals I

The mathematical expression known as the wave function, ψ, contains information about each orbital and the wavelike properties of electrons in an isolated atom. When atoms are bound together in a molecule, the wave functions combine to produce new mathematical descriptions that have different shapes. This process of combining the wave functions for atomic orbitals is called hybridization and is mathematically accomplished by the linear combination of atomic orbitals. The new orbitals that...

Atomic Structure

Atomic Structure

Atomic Mass

Atomic Mass

Atoms — and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them — are extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 × 10−23 g. When describing the properties of tiny objects such as atoms, we use appropriately small units of measure, such as the atomic mass unit (amu). The amu was originally defined based on hydrogen, the lightest element, then later in terms of oxygen. Since 1961, it has been defined with regard to the most abundant isotope of carbon, atoms of which...

Atomic Orbitals

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution function indicates the total probability of finding an electron within the thin shell at a distance r from the nucleus. The atomic orbitals have distinct shapes which are determined by l, the angular momentum quantum number. The orbitals are often drawn with a boundary surface, enclosing densest regions of the cloud.

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals II

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals II

sp3d and sp3d 2 Hybridization

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are also observed. The attractive and repulsive forces are dependent on the distance between the particles, as well as the sign and magnitude of the charges on the individual particles. When the charges on the particles are opposite, they attract each other. If both particles have the same charge, they repel each other.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 26, 2026

Syntheses, Crystallization, and Spectroscopic Characterization of 3,5-Lutidine N-Oxide Dehydrate

Syntheses, Crystallization, and Spectroscopic Characterization of 3,5-Lutidine N-Oxide Dehydrate

Published on: April 24, 2018

Programmable Atom Equivalents: Atomic Crystallization as a Framework for Synthesizing Nanoparticle Superlattices.

Paul A Gabrys¹, Leonardo Z Zornberg¹, Robert J Macfarlane¹

¹Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.

Small (Weinheim an Der Bergstrasse, Germany)

|April 11, 2019

Summary

Researchers are using DNA-grafted nanoparticles (NPs) as "programmable atom equivalents" (PAEs) to mimic atomic crystallization. This approach enables predictable, hierarchical material assembly for advanced nanomaterials synthesis.

Keywords:

DNA crystallization nanoparticle superlattices programmable atom equivalents

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Published on: December 6, 2021

Picometer-Precision Atomic Position Tracking through Electron Microscopy

Picometer-Precision Atomic Position Tracking through Electron Microscopy

Published on: July 3, 2021

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Last Updated: Jan 26, 2026

Syntheses, Crystallization, and Spectroscopic Characterization of 3,5-Lutidine N-Oxide Dehydrate

Syntheses, Crystallization, and Spectroscopic Characterization of 3,5-Lutidine N-Oxide Dehydrate

Published on: April 24, 2018

Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles Supported on Carbon Nanotube with Doped Co and N Atoms and its Catalytic Applications in Hydrogen Production

Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles Supported on Carbon Nanotube with Doped Co and N Atoms and its Catalytic Applications in Hydrogen Production

Published on: December 6, 2021

Picometer-Precision Atomic Position Tracking through Electron Microscopy

Picometer-Precision Atomic Position Tracking through Electron Microscopy

Published on: July 3, 2021

Area of Science:

Materials Science
Nanotechnology
Crystallography

Background:

Atomic crystallization pathways are well-understood, guiding materials synthesis.
Nanotechnology utilizes colloidal nanoparticles (NPs) as building blocks for hierarchical materials.
NP assembly mechanisms often lack the predictability of atomic crystallization.

Purpose of the Study:

To introduce DNA-grafted NPs as "programmable atom equivalents" (PAEs) for controlled nanomaterial assembly.
To bridge the understanding gap between atomic and NP crystallization mechanisms.
To enable rational design of nanomaterials through predictable assembly.

Main Methods:

Reviewing the characteristics of DNA-grafted NPs as PAEs.
Highlighting assembly behaviors analogous to atomic crystallization phenomena.
Discussing the role of DNA base-pairing in controlled NP assembly.

Main Results:

DNA-grafted NPs exhibit tunable assembly behaviors.
These PAEs facilitate complex, predictable hierarchical structures.
Assembly mechanisms can be rationalized within the framework of atomic crystallization.

Conclusions:

DNA-grafted NPs offer a powerful strategy for advanced nanomaterials synthesis.
PAEs enable precise control over material structure and properties.
This approach significantly advances beyond traditional NP crystallization techniques.