Species differences in pharmacokinetics and drug teratogenesis

Interspecies differences in regard to the teratogenicity of drugs can be the result of differing pharmacokinetic processes that determine the crucial concentration-time relationships in the embryo. Maternal absorption, as well as distribution, of the drugs does not usually show great species differences. The first-pass effect after oral application is often more pronounced in animals than man (e.g., valproic acid, 13-cis-retinoic acid), although in some cases the reverse was found (e.g., hydrolysis of valpromide). Existing differences can be adjusted by appropriate choice of the administration route and measurements of drug levels. Many variables determine the placental transfer of drugs: developmental stage, type of placenta, properties of the drug. Even closely related drugs (e.g., retinoids) may differ greatly in regard to placental transfer. Maternal protein binding is an important determinant of placental transfer, since only the free concentration in maternal plasma can equilibrate with the embryo during organogenesis; this parameter differs greatly across species (e.g., valproic acid: five times higher free fractions in mouse and hamster than in monkey and man). The metabolic pattern has not yet been demonstrated to be a major cause of species differences, although recent evidence on phenytoin and thalidomide support the hypothesis that some species differences can be the result of differing activation/deactivation pathways. Laboratory animals usually have a much higher rate of drug elimination than man. Drastic drug level fluctuations are therefore present during teratogenicity testing in animals, but not to the same degree in human therapy. It must, therefore, be investigated if peak concentrations (such as for valproic acid and possibly caffeine) or the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) (such as for cyclophosphamide and possibly retinoids) correlate with the teratogenic response. Only then is a rational and scientific basis for interspecies comparison possible. It is concluded that the prediction of the human response based on animal studies can be improved by consideration of the appropriate pharmacokinetic determinants.