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Electron Carriers01:24

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Electron carriers can be thought of as electron shuttles. These compounds can easily accept electrons (i.e., be reduced) or lose them (i.e., be oxidized). They play an essential role in energy production because cellular respiration is contingent on the flow of electrons.
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Free energy—abbreviated as G for the scientist Gibbs who discovered it—is a measurement of useful energy that can be extracted from a reaction to do work. It is the energy in a chemical reaction that is available after entropy is accounted for. Reactions that take in energy are considered endergonic and reactions that release energy are exergonic. Plants carry out endergonic reactions by taking in sunlight and carbon dioxide to produce glucose and oxygen. Animals, in turn, break...
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The final stage of cellular respiration is oxidative phosphorylation that consists of two steps: the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis. The electron transport chain is a set of proteins found in the inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotic cells. Its primary function is to establish a proton gradient that can be used during chemiosmosis to produce ATP and generate electron carriers, such as NAD+ and FAD, that are used in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.
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Updated: Jan 25, 2026

A Microcontroller Operated Device for the Generation of Liquid Extracts from Conventional Cigarette Smoke and Electronic Cigarette Aerosol
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Optimal Probabilistic Work Extraction beyond the Free Energy Difference with a Single-Electron Device.

Olivier Maillet1, Paolo A Erdman2, Vasco Cavina2

  • 1QTF Centre of Excellence, Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University School of Science, P.O. Box 13500, 00076 Aalto, Finland.

Physical Review Letters
|May 4, 2019
PubMed
Summary

Researchers extracted more work than theoretically possible from a single-electron transistor using novel out-of-equilibrium cycles. This demonstrates using irreversibility as a resource for optimal work extraction without external feedback.

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Area of Science:

  • Thermodynamics
  • Quantum Electronics
  • Statistical Mechanics

Background:

  • Extracting work from nanoscale systems is crucial for quantum technologies.
  • Traditional thermodynamics limits work extraction to the free energy difference.
  • Understanding single-trajectory thermodynamics is key to exploring energy conversion at the nanoscale.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To experimentally demonstrate work extraction beyond the free energy difference from a single-electron transistor.
  • To investigate the role of nonequilibrium driving protocols in enhancing work extraction.
  • To validate theoretical predictions using nonequilibrium fluctuation relations.

Main Methods:

  • Utilizing a single-electron transistor as the experimental platform.
  • Designing and implementing two specific out-of-equilibrium driving cycles with parameter kicks.
  • Analyzing individual thermodynamic trajectories to quantify extracted work.
  • Applying nonequilibrium fluctuation relations to interpret the results.

Main Results:

  • Achieved work extraction exceeding the free energy difference at the single-trajectory level.
  • Demonstrated significant work extraction (large fractions of k_{B}T) using designed driving cycles.
  • Observed probabilities of successful work extraction substantially greater than 1/2.
  • Confirmed findings within the framework of nonequilibrium fluctuation relations.

Conclusions:

  • Irreversibility can be effectively utilized as a resource for optimal work extraction.
  • Experimental protocols can overcome traditional thermodynamic limitations in nanoscale energy conversion.
  • The study provides a foundation for developing more efficient nanoscale thermodynamic devices.