Jove
Visualize
Contact Us
JoVE
x logofacebook logolinkedin logoyoutube logo
ABOUT JoVE
OverviewLeadershipBlogJoVE Help Center
AUTHORS
Publishing ProcessEditorial BoardScope & PoliciesPeer ReviewFAQSubmit
LIBRARIANS
TestimonialsSubscriptionsAccessResourcesLibrary Advisory BoardFAQ
RESEARCH
JoVE JournalMethods CollectionsJoVE Encyclopedia of ExperimentsArchive
EDUCATION
JoVE CoreJoVE BusinessJoVE Science EducationJoVE Lab ManualFaculty Resource CenterFaculty Site
Terms & Conditions of Use
Privacy Policy
Policies

Related Concept Videos

Types of Toxins01:36

Types of Toxins

3.3K
Humans continually engage with an environment rich in potentially harmful chemicals. These are introduced to our bodies through inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact. These chemicals exist in various forms, such as air and environmental pollutants, agricultural chemicals, organic solvents, and heavy metals.
Air pollutants, primarily gases, pose significant threats to respiratory health, leading to conditions like hypoxia, lung cancer, and in extreme cases, death.
Environmental pollutants like...
3.3K
Second Order systems II01:18

Second Order systems II

396
In an underdamped second-order system, where the damping ratio ζ is between 0 and 1, a unit-step input results in a transfer function that, when transformed using the inverse Laplace method, reveals the output response. The output exhibits a damped sinusoidal oscillation, and the difference between the input and output is termed the error signal. This error signal also demonstrates damped oscillatory behavior. Eventually, as the system reaches a steady state, the error diminishes to zero.
396
First Order Systems01:21

First Order Systems

411
First-order systems, such as RC circuits, are foundational in understanding dynamic systems due to their straightforward input-output relationship. Analyzing their responses to different input functions under zero initial conditions reveals significant insights into system behavior.
When a first-order system is subjected to a unit-step input, its response is characterized by its transfer function. By applying the Laplace transform of the unit-step input to the transfer function, expanding the...
411
Second Order systems I01:20

Second Order systems I

581
A servo system exemplifies a second-order system, featuring a proportional controller and load elements that ensure the output position aligns with the input position. The relationship between these components is described by a second-order differential equation. Applying the Laplace transform under zero initial conditions yields the transfer function, showing how inputs are converted to outputs in the system.
By reinterpreting the system, one can derive the closed-loop transfer function, which...
581
Directly Acting Muscle Relaxants: Dantrolene and Botulinum Toxin01:26

Directly Acting Muscle Relaxants: Dantrolene and Botulinum Toxin

1.1K
Directly acting muscle relaxants like dantrolene and botulinum toxin (BoNT) have distinct mechanisms and applications. Dantrolene, a hydantoin derivative, acts on the ryanodine receptor (RYR1) in skeletal muscle cells. RYR1 are calcium channels present at the sarcoplasmic reticulum membrane. In response to excitation, they release calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum to the cytosol. Calcium promotes actin-myosin-mediated contraction of muscles.
The binding of dantrolene to the RYR1...
1.1K
Classification of Systems-I01:26

Classification of Systems-I

555
Linearity is a system property characterized by a direct input-output relationship, combining homogeneity and additivity.
Homogeneity dictates that if an input x(t) is multiplied by a constant c, the output y(t) is multiplied by the same constant. Mathematically, this is expressed as:
555

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by
Same author

Shorebird loss increases soil CO<sub>2</sub> emissions in coastal wetlands under restoration.

Fundamental research·2026
Same author

Evidence for an Electronically Driven Charge Density Wave in a 1D Metallic MOF.

ACS central science·2026
Same author

Redox-Active Doubly Boron-Doped Indenofluorenes: Isomer-Directed Access to Open- and Closed-Shell Electronic States Induces Strong Near-Infrared Activity.

Journal of the American Chemical Society·2026
Same author

Mammalian-like steroidogenesis in plants gives rise to endocrine-mimetic cardenolides.

Science advances·2026
Same author

Sterol trafficking in yeast studied by one- and two-photon live-cell imaging of an intrinsically fluorescent ergosterol analog.

Methods and applications in fluorescence·2026
Same author

The risk of psychosis associated with cannabis use by people with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review.

Australasian psychiatry : bulletin of Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists·2026

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 25, 2026

Prevention of Heat Stress Adverse Effects in Rats by Bacillus subtilis Strain
07:57

Prevention of Heat Stress Adverse Effects in Rats by Bacillus subtilis Strain

Published on: July 11, 2016

8.0K

Toxin⁻Antitoxin Systems in Bacillus subtilis.

Sabine Brantl1, Peter Müller2

  • 1Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, Matthias-Schleiden-Institut, AG Bakteriengenetik, Philosophenweg 12, D-07743 Jena, Germany. Sabine.Brantl@uni-jena.de.

Toxins
|May 12, 2019
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems are crucial for bacterial survival and are found on both plasmids and chromosomes. This review focuses on type I and II TA systems in Bacillus subtilis, exploring their function, regulation, and evolution.

Keywords:
RNA degradationantisense RNAprophagesmall regulatory RNA (sRNA)/target RNA interactiontoxic peptidetoxin–antitoxin system

More Related Videos

Improvement of Bacillus subtilis Spore Enumeration and Label Analysis in Flow Cytometry
06:39

Improvement of Bacillus subtilis Spore Enumeration and Label Analysis in Flow Cytometry

Published on: June 30, 2023

1.6K
Visualization of Germinosomes and the Inner Membrane in Bacillus subtilis Spores
08:58

Visualization of Germinosomes and the Inner Membrane in Bacillus subtilis Spores

Published on: April 15, 2019

10.5K

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jan 25, 2026

Prevention of Heat Stress Adverse Effects in Rats by Bacillus subtilis Strain
07:57

Prevention of Heat Stress Adverse Effects in Rats by Bacillus subtilis Strain

Published on: July 11, 2016

8.0K
Improvement of Bacillus subtilis Spore Enumeration and Label Analysis in Flow Cytometry
06:39

Improvement of Bacillus subtilis Spore Enumeration and Label Analysis in Flow Cytometry

Published on: June 30, 2023

1.6K
Visualization of Germinosomes and the Inner Membrane in Bacillus subtilis Spores
08:58

Visualization of Germinosomes and the Inner Membrane in Bacillus subtilis Spores

Published on: April 15, 2019

10.5K

Area of Science:

  • Microbiology
  • Bacterial Genetics
  • Molecular Biology

Background:

  • Toxin-antitoxin (TA) systems, initially identified on bacterial plasmids, are also prevalent in bacterial chromosomes.
  • These systems consist of a toxic component and a counteracting antitoxin, regulating cell growth and survival.
  • Six types of TA systems are known; Bacillus subtilis harbors type I and type II, located chromosomally.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review current knowledge of type I and type II toxin-antitoxin systems in Bacillus subtilis.
  • To elucidate the mechanisms of toxin and antitoxin action within these systems.
  • To discuss the regulation, evolution, and potential physiological roles of TA systems in Bacillus subtilis.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of existing research on toxin-antitoxin systems.
  • Analysis of genetic organization and functional mechanisms of type I and type II TA systems.
  • Comparative discussion of TA system evolution and regulation.

Main Results:

  • Bacillus subtilis possesses type I and type II TA systems, exclusively located on its chromosome.
  • Detailed mechanisms of toxin-induced cell death/growth arrest and antitoxin neutralization are reviewed.
  • Expression regulation and evolutionary aspects of these TA systems are discussed.

Conclusions:

  • Toxin-antitoxin systems play a significant role in bacterial physiology beyond plasmid maintenance.
  • Understanding TA systems in Bacillus subtilis provides insights into bacterial stress response and genome stability.
  • Further research into the physiological roles and evolutionary trajectories of TA systems is warranted.