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Related Concept Videos

meta-Directing Deactivators: –NO2, –CN, –CHO, –⁠CO2R, –COR, –CO2H01:13

meta-Directing Deactivators: –NO2, –CN, –CHO, –⁠CO2R, –COR, –CO2H

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All meta-directing substituents are deactivating groups. These substituents withdraw electrons from the aromatic ring, making the ring less reactive toward electrophilic substitution. For example, the nitration of nitrobenzene is 100,000 times slower than that of benzene because of the deactivating effect of the nitro group. The first step in an electrophilic aromatic substitution is the addition of an electrophile to form a resonance-stabilized carbocation. The energy diagrams for...
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Blood Studies for Cardiovascular System I: Cardiac Biomarkers01:20

Blood Studies for Cardiovascular System I: Cardiac Biomarkers

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Cardiac biomarkers are enzymes, proteins, and hormones released into the blood when cardiac cells are injured. They are powerful tools for triaging.
The essential diagnostic tools for detecting myocardial necrosis and monitoring individuals suspected of having acute coronary syndrome (ACS) include:
Troponins
Troponins, particularly cardiac troponins I and T, are the most precise and sensitive markers of myocardial injury. They are detectable within 4-6 hours of myocardial injury and remain...
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2° Amines to N-Nitrosamines: Reaction with NaNO201:20

2° Amines to N-Nitrosamines: Reaction with NaNO2

5.4K
Secondary amines react with nitrous acid to form N-nitrosamines, as depicted in Figure 1. Nitrous acid, a weak and unstable acid, is formed in situ from an aqueous solution of sodium nitrite and strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, in cold conditions. In the presence of an acid, the nitrous acid gets protonated. The subsequent loss of water results in the formation of the electrophile known as nitrosonium ion.
5.4K
SN2 Reaction: Kinetics02:14

SN2 Reaction: Kinetics

10.2K
Kinetic Studies and Significance
In a chemical reaction, a relationship exists between the concentration of reactants and the rate at which the reaction proceeds. The study to measure this relationship is known as the kinetics of a chemical reaction. Kinetic studies are used to deduce the rate law of a chemical reaction, which provides information about the species involved during the transition state of the rate-determining step. Thus, kinetic studies help to derive the mechanism of a...
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SN2 Reaction: Mechanism02:27

SN2 Reaction: Mechanism

17.2K
The kinetic studies of SN2 reactions suggest an essential feature of its mechanism: it is a single-step process without intermediates. Here, both the nucleophile and the substrate participate in the rate-determining step.
The presence of the more electronegative halogen in the substrate creates a polarized carbon-halide bond. The halide pulls the electron cloud generating an electrophilic center at the carbon atom. Thus, the carbon atom carries a partial positive charge while the halide has a...
17.2K
SN2 Reaction: Transition State02:26

SN2 Reaction: Transition State

11.8K
An SN2 reaction of an alkyl halide is a single-step process in which bond formation between the nucleophile and the substrate and bond breaking between the substrate and the halide occurs simultaneously through a transition state without forming an intermediate.
When the nucleophile approaches the electrophilic carbon with its lone pairs, the halide acts as a leaving group and moves away with the electron-pair bonded to the carbon. Dotted partial bonds represent the bonds being formed or broken...
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Related Experiment Video

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Biomarkers in an Animal Model for Revealing Neural, Hematologic, and Behavioral Correlates of PTSD
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Angiopoietin-2: a biomarker in hyperthyroidism.

Rudina Ndreu1, Valter Lubrano2, Laura Sabatino1

  • 1Institute of Clinical Physiology, CNR, Via Moruzzi 1, Pisa 56124, Italy.

Theoretical Biology Forum
|May 16, 2019
PubMed
Summary

Serum angiopoietin-2 levels are elevated in hyperthyroid patients, correlating with thyroid hormone levels. This suggests angiopoietin-2 may mediate angiogenesis and vascular remodeling in hyperthyroidism.

Keywords:
AngiogenesisAngiopoietin-2HyperthyroidismHypothyroidismThyroid hormons

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Using Extraordinary Optical Transmission to Quantify Cardiac Biomarkers in Human Serum
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Area of Science:

  • Endocrinology
  • Vascular Biology
  • Oncology

Background:

  • Serum angiopoietin-2 (ANGPT2) is implicated in angiogenesis and vascular remodeling across various diseases.
  • Thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), influence angiogenesis in vitro, yet their relationship with ANGPT2 in thyroid disorders remains underexplored.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate soluble angiopoietin-2 serum levels in patients with diverse thyroid conditions.
  • To examine the correlation between angiopoietin-2 levels and circulating free triiodothyronine (fT3) and free thyroxine (fT4) concentrations.

Main Methods:

  • Quantification of serum angiopoietin-2 using ELISA.
  • Analysis of sera from 15 healthy volunteers and 42 thyroid patients (hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, thyroiditis, and their treated counterparts).

Main Results:

  • Median angiopoietin-2 levels were significantly elevated in hyperthyroid patients compared to all other groups (p < 0.0001).
  • A significant positive correlation was found between angiopoietin-2 levels and both fT3 and fT4 serum concentrations (r = 0.4, P < 0.001).
  • Anti-thyroid therapy appeared to reduce angiopoietin-2 levels in hyperthyroid patients.

Conclusions:

  • Increased serum angiopoietin-2 is characteristic of hyperthyroidism and correlates with thyroid hormone levels.
  • Angiopoietin-2 may act as a mediator of angiogenesis and vascular remodeling in hyperthyroidism.
  • Further research is warranted to elucidate the precise role of angiopoietin-2 in hyperthyroid pathophysiology and progression.