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Related Concept Videos

Protein Complex Assembly02:41

Protein Complex Assembly

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Proteins can form homomeric complexes with another unit of the same protein or heteromeric complexes with different types.  Most protein complexes self-assemble spontaneously via ordered pathways, while some proteins need assembly factors that guide their proper assembly. Despite the crowded intracellular environment, proteins usually interact with their correct partners and form functional complexes.
Many viruses self-assemble into a fully functional unit using the infected host cell to...
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Protein Complexes with Interchangeable Parts01:57

Protein Complexes with Interchangeable Parts

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Groups of proteins may form a complex where each protein in this complex has a different role in the overall execution of the complex’s function. Often some of the proteins in the complex can be replaced by a closely related variant to give a complex that contains many of the same components yet is functionally distinct.
The SCF ubiquitin ligase is a protein complex of five individual proteins. This complex attaches ubiquitin to other target proteins to mark them for degradation. In order...
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Crystal Field Theory - Octahedral Complexes02:58

Crystal Field Theory - Octahedral Complexes

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Crystal Field Theory
To explain the observed behavior of transition metal complexes (such as colors), a model involving electrostatic interactions between the electrons from the ligands and the electrons in the unhybridized d orbitals of the central metal atom has been developed. This electrostatic model is crystal field theory (CFT). It helps to understand, interpret, and predict the colors, magnetic behavior, and some structures of coordination compounds of transition metals.
CFT focuses on...
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Formation of Complex Ions03:45

Formation of Complex Ions

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A type of Lewis acid-base chemistry involves the formation of a complex ion (or a coordination complex) comprising a central atom, typically a transition metal cation, surrounded by ions or molecules called ligands. These ligands can be neutral molecules like H2O or NH3, or ions such as CN− or OH−. Often, the ligands act as Lewis bases, donating a pair of electrons to the central atom. These types of Lewis acid-base reactions are examples of a broad subdiscipline called coordination...
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Cellular Differentiation00:57

Cellular Differentiation

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How does a complex organism such as a human develop from a single cell? It all starts from a single fertilized egg which gives rise to a vast array of cell types, such as nerve cells, muscle cells, and epithelial cells that characterize the adult? Throughout development and adulthood, cellular differentiation leads cells to assume their final morphology and physiology. Differentiation is the process by which unspecialized cells become specialized to carry out distinct functions.
A zygote is a...
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Cellular Respiration01:18

Cellular Respiration

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Cellular respiration is a crucial metabolic process through which cells obtain energy from organic substances, mainly glucose, to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This process includes the oxidation of substrates and the transfer of electrons to a separate electron acceptor, facilitating ATP synthesis through a sequence of biochemical reactions.Glycolysis: The Initial StepGlycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration, occurring in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 24, 2026

Development of a Larval Zebrafish Infection Model for Clostridioides difficile
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Development of a Larval Zebrafish Infection Model for Clostridioides difficile

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Probing Clostridium difficile Infection in Complex Human Gut Cellular Models.

Blessing O Anonye1, Jack Hassall2, Jamie Patient3

  • 1Microbiology and Infection Unit, Division of Biomedical Sciences, Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom.

Frontiers in Microbiology
|May 23, 2019
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

New in vitro models reveal how Clostridium difficile interacts with the human gut lining. These models show C. difficile causes epithelial damage and that the commensal Bacteroides dorei can limit its growth.

Keywords:
3D gut epitheliumC. difficile–commensal interactionsClostridium difficilecolonizationgut infection modelvertical diffusion chamber

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Cefoperazone-treated Mouse Model of Clinically-relevant Clostridium difficile Strain R20291
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Cefoperazone-treated Mouse Model of Clinically-relevant Clostridium difficile Strain R20291

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Last Updated: Jan 24, 2026

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Cefoperazone-treated Mouse Model of Clinically-relevant Clostridium difficile Strain R20291
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Cefoperazone-treated Mouse Model of Clinically-relevant Clostridium difficile Strain R20291

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Area of Science:

  • Microbiology
  • Gastroenterology
  • Host-Pathogen Interactions

Background:

  • Interactions between anaerobic gut bacteria like Clostridium difficile and the intestinal mucosa are poorly understood due to culturing challenges.
  • Clostridium difficile colonization is critical for disease but mechanisms of mucosal attachment and spread remain unclear.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop and utilize novel in vitro human gut models to study Clostridium difficile interactions with the intestinal epithelium and commensal bacteria.
  • To investigate the effects of Clostridium difficile infection on epithelial integrity and the impact of commensal bacteria on C. difficile growth.

Main Methods:

  • Co-culture of human gut epithelial monolayers in dual environment chambers to mimic anaerobic/aerobic conditions.
  • Development of more complex models including myofibroblast layers on scaffolds for advanced studies.
  • Assessment of C. difficile adhesion, growth, epithelial integrity changes, and spore/toxin production.

Main Results:

  • Clostridium difficile adhesion to epithelial cells increased bacterial numbers and led to actin redistribution, loss of epithelial integrity, and production of spores, toxins, and filaments.
  • Clostridium difficile growth was significantly inhibited in the presence of the commensal bacterium Bacteroides dorei.
  • More complex models with myofibroblasts showed more efficient C. difficile adhesion and faster epithelial destruction compared to simple monolayers.

Conclusions:

  • Novel controlled environment human gut models facilitate in vitro studies of host-anaerobe and pathogen-commensal interactions.
  • These models provide insights into Clostridium difficile pathogenesis and the role of the gut microbiota in modulating infection.