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Related Concept Videos

Drug Delivery: Overview01:16

Drug Delivery: Overview

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The selection of a drug's delivery route depends upon its physicochemical properties, including lipid or water solubility and ionization, as well as the therapeutic requirement, such as immediate or sustained effect. These routes can be divided into three primary categories: enteral, parenteral, and topical.
Enteral delivery involves administering drugs directly through swallowing, sublingual placement, or buccal application. Orally administered drugs predominantly navigate the...
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Drug Delivery: Enteral Route01:18

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The enteral drug administration involves three primary routes: oral, sublingual, and buccal. Oral ingestion is the most prevalent, safe, economical, and convenient method for drug administration. However, it has certain drawbacks, including limited absorption due to the drug's low water solubility or poor membrane permeability, possible emesis from GI mucosa irritation, destruction of drugs by digestive enzymes or low gastric pH, and irregular absorption along with food or other drugs.
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Drug Delivery: Parenteral Route01:29

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The parenteral route is a critical method of drug administration. It delivers compounds directly into the systemic circulation and bypasses the gastrointestinal tract. This approach is particularly advantageous for drugs that exhibit poor absorption or instability when administered orally.
There are three primary parenteral routes: intravenous (IV), intramuscular (IM), and subcutaneous (SC). The IV route introduces the drug directly into the bloodstream, ensuring immediate action. The IM route...
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Subliminal Perception01:15

Subliminal Perception

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Subliminal perception refers to the processing of sensory information that occurs below the level of conscious awareness. Researchers study subliminal perception by presenting a stimulus, such as a word or image, very quickly, typically around 50 milliseconds. This rapid presentation is often followed by another stimulus, such as a pattern of dots or lines, which blocks further mental processing of the initial stimulus. As a result, if participants cannot identify the initial stimulus better...
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Factors Affecting Perception01:25

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Perception is influenced by perceptual set, context, motivation, and emotion. Perceptual set, or perceptual expectancy, refers to the tendency to perceive things in a particular way, influenced by previous experiences and expectations. This phenomenon affects the interpretation of stimuli, creating a set of mental tendencies and assumptions that impact sensory perceptions of sound, taste, touch, and sight.
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Drug Delivery: Miscellaneous Routes01:22

Drug Delivery: Miscellaneous Routes

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Drug delivery methods like oral inhalation, nasal sprays, transdermal patches, eye drops, intravitreal injection,  and rectal administration provide localized effects with reduced toxicity.
Oral inhalation and nasal sprays swiftly transfer drugs across the respiratory epithelium's mucosal layer. Inhaled glucocorticoids and bronchodilators directly target lung conditions such as asthma, while fluticasone nasal spray mitigates allergic rhinitis.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 24, 2026

Synthesis of Protein Bioconjugates via Cysteine-maleimide Chemistry
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Bioconjugation in Drug Delivery: Practical Perspectives and Future Perceptions.

Perihan Elzahhar1, Ahmed S F Belal1, Fatema Elamrawy2

  • 1Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt.

Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J.)
|June 1, 2019
PubMed
Summary

Bioconjugate structures offer a promising alternative to nanoparticulate drug delivery systems, overcoming limitations like cost and stability. This review details bioconjugate types, synthesis, and characterization for advanced pharmaceutical applications.

Keywords:
(Strept)Avidin–biotin systemAntibody-radionuclide conjugates (ARCs)Antibody–drug conjugates (ADCs)BioconjugationCarbodiimide crosslinkersClick chemistryCrystallizationDCC carbodiimide crosslinkerDialysisEDC/Sulfo-NHS crosslinkerFreeze-drying (lyophilization)High-performance liquid size exclusion chromatography (HPLC-SEC)Infrared (IR) spectroscopyLiquid column chromatography (LC)Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS)Nanoparticles-based conjugatesNuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)Nucleophilic substitutionsPeptide-basedPeptidomemeticPolymericRotary evaporationThin-layer chromatography (TLC)

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Area of Science:

  • Pharmaceutical Science
  • Biotechnology
  • Materials Science

Background:

  • Nanoparticulate drug delivery systems (e.g., nanoparticles, liposomes) have been dominant for three decades, enabling targeted delivery, imaging, and treatment.
  • These systems face significant challenges including high costs, poor stability, short shelf-life, and batch-to-batch variability, hindering clinical translation.
  • Bioconjugate structures are emerging as a superior alternative, offering custom design, tailor grafting, and overcoming many limitations of nanoparticulate systems.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To present bioconjugate structures as an advantageous alternative to nanoparticulate drug delivery systems.
  • To review the diverse applications of bioconjugation in life sciences, including drug delivery, imaging, and biosensing.
  • To provide a comprehensive overview of bioconjugate types, synthesis, characterization, and formulation approaches.

Main Methods:

  • Discussion of various bioconjugate types and their properties.
  • Explanation of synthesis and characterization techniques for bioconjugates.
  • Highlighting prominent synthetic strategies like click chemistry, carbodiimide coupling, and avidin-biotin systems.

Main Results:

  • Bioconjugation allows for simple, one-step drug conjugation using biocompatible linkers.
  • It enables the attachment of targeting agents, PEGylation, or multiple drugs to a single molecule.
  • Various established synthetic approaches facilitate the formulation of advanced bioconjugate systems.

Conclusions:

  • Bioconjugates represent a flexible and advantageous platform for advanced drug and gene delivery.
  • They offer solutions to the inherent challenges associated with nanoparticulate delivery systems.
  • This review provides insights into the practical aspects of bioconjugate synthesis and application.