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Related Concept Videos

PD Controller: Design01:26

PD Controller: Design

633
In automotive engineering, car suspension systems often employ Proportional Derivative (PD) controllers to enhance performance. PD controllers are utilized to adjust the damping force in response to road conditions. A controller, acting as an amplifier with a constant gain, demonstrates proportional control, with output directly mirroring input.
Designing a continuous-data controller requires selecting and linking components like adders and integrators, which are fundamental in Proportional,...
633
Time-Domain Interpretation of PD Control01:07

Time-Domain Interpretation of PD Control

387
Proportional-Derivative (PD) control is a widely used control method in various engineering systems to enhance stability and performance. In a system with only proportional control, common issues include high maximum overshoot and oscillation, observed in both the error signal and its rate of change. This behavior can be divided into three distinct phases: initial overshoot, subsequent undershoot, and gradual stabilization.
Consider the example of control of motor torque. Initially, a positive...
387
Frequency-Domain Interpretation of PD Control01:24

Frequency-Domain Interpretation of PD Control

357
Proportional-Derivative (PD) controllers are widely used in fan control systems to improve stability and performance. A fan control system can be effectively represented using a Bode plot to illustrate the impact of a PD controller through its transfer function. The Bode plot visually conveys how PD control modifies the fan's response across various frequencies, providing a frequency domain interpretation of the controller's behavior.
The proportional control gain, combined with the...
357
Cancers Originate from Somatic Mutations in a Single Cell02:21

Cancers Originate from Somatic Mutations in a Single Cell

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Cancer arises from mutations in the critical genes that allow healthy cells to escape cell cycle regulation and acquire the ability to proliferate indefinitely. Though originating from a single mutation event in one of the originator cells, cancer progresses when the mutant cell lines continue to gain more and more mutations, and finally, become malignant. For example, chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) develops initially as a non-lethal increase in white blood cells, which progressively...
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What is Gene Expression?01:42

What is Gene Expression?

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Overview
Gene expression is the process in which DNA directs the synthesis of functional products, that is, proteins. Cells can regulate gene expression at various stages. It allows organisms to generate different cell types and enables cells to adapt to internal and external factors.
Genetic Information Flows from DNA to RNA to Protein
A gene is a stretch of DNA that serves as the blueprint for functional RNAs and proteins. Since DNA is made up of nucleotides and proteins consist of amino...
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Cell Specific Gene Expression01:58

Cell Specific Gene Expression

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Multicellular organisms contain a variety of structurally and functionally distinct cell types, but the DNA in all the cells originated from the same parent cells. The differences in the cells can be attributed to the differential gene expression. Liver cells, whose functions include detoxification of blood, production of bile to metabolize fats, and synthesis of proteins essential for metabolism, must express a specific set of genes to perform their functions. Gene expression also varies with...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 23, 2026

Orthotopic Transplantation of Syngeneic Lung Adenocarcinoma Cells to Study PD-L1 Expression
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PD-L1 expression on nonclassical monocytes reveals their origin and immunoregulatory function.

Mariaelvy Bianchini1, Johan Duchêne2, Donato Santovito1

  • 1Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU), 80336 Munich, Germany.

Science Immunology
|June 23, 2019
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Researchers identified PD-L1 as a reliable marker for nonclassical monocytes (NCMs), revealing their bone marrow origin and immunomodulatory role in inflammation. This discovery aids in understanding NCM function in health and disease.

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Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology
  • Molecular Medicine

Background:

  • Nonclassical monocytes (NCMs) play emerging roles in health and disease.
  • Limited understanding of NCM tissue localization and function due to lack of specific markers.
  • Previous research has not established a definitive marker for NCM identification.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To identify a reliable marker for tracking nonclassical monocytes (NCMs).
  • To investigate the origin and tissue distribution of NCMs.
  • To elucidate the immunomodulatory function of NCMs in inflammatory conditions.

Main Methods:

  • Characterization of PD-L1 (CD274) as a specific marker for NCMs.
  • Two-photon microscopy for visualizing PD-L1-positive (PD-L1+) NCMs in tissues.
  • Analysis of NCMs in bone marrow vasculature and tertiary lymphoid organs (TLOs) in mice and humans.

Main Results:

  • PD-L1 is identified as an unequivocal marker for tracking NCMs in circulation and tissues.
  • NCM conversion from classical monocytes requires contact with endosteal vessels in the bone marrow.
  • PD-L1+ NCMs accumulate in TLOs during inflammation and promote T cell apoptosis in a PD-L1-dependent manner.

Conclusions:

  • PD-L1 serves as a crucial tool for investigating NCMs.
  • NCMs originate in the bone marrow through interaction with endosteal vessels.
  • NCMs possess a PD-L1-mediated immunomodulatory function that influences T cell responses in inflammatory sites.