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Halogens

Halogens

Group 17 elements, known as halogens, are nonmetals. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine a solid. Astatine is a highly unstable radioactive element, so currently, most of its properties are unknown due to its short half-life. Tennessine is a synthetic element also predicted to be in this group.

Bond Energies and Bond Lengths

Bond Energies and Bond Lengths

Stable molecules exist because covalent bonds hold the atoms together. The strength of a covalent bond is measured by the energy required to break it, that is, the energy necessary to separate the bonded atoms. Separating any pair of bonded atoms requires energy — the stronger a bond, the greater the energy required to break it.

Peptide Bonds

Peptide Bonds

A peptide bond covalently attaches amino acids through a dehydration reaction. One amino acid's carboxyl group and another amino acid's amino group combine, releasing a water molecule. The resulting bond is the peptide bond. The products that such linkages form are peptides. As more amino acids join this growing chain, the resulting chain is a polypeptide. Each polypeptide has a free amino group at one end. This end has the N-terminal, or the amino-terminal, and the other end has a free...

Bonding in Metals

Bonding in Metals

Metallic bonds are formed between two metal atoms. A simplified model to describe metallic bonding has been developed by Paul Drüde called the “Electron Sea Model”.

Ionic Bonds

Ionic Bonds

Overview
When atoms gain or lose electrons to achieve a more stable electron configuration they form ions. Ionic bonds are electrostatic attractions between ions with opposite charges. Ionic compounds are rigid and brittle when solid and may dissociate into their constituent ions in water. Covalent compounds, by contrast, remain intact unless a chemical reaction breaks them.
Opposing Charges Hold Ions Together in Ionic Compounds
Ionic bonds are reversible electrostatic interactions between ions...

Covalent Bonds

Covalent Bonds

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 23, 2026

From Molecules to Materials: Engineering New Ionic Liquid Crystals Through Halogen Bonding

From Molecules to Materials: Engineering New Ionic Liquid Crystals Through Halogen Bonding

Published on: March 24, 2018

Four-Center Nodes: Supramolecular Synthons Based on Cyclic Halogen Bonding.

Mariya A Kryukova¹, Daniil M Ivanov¹, Mikhail A Kinzhalov¹

¹Institute of Chemistry, Saint Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya Nab. 7/9, 199034, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation.

Chemistry (Weinheim an Der Bergstrasse, Germany)

|June 25, 2019

Summary

New metal complexes featuring isocyanide and nitrile ligands form unique four-center nodes via cyclic halogen bonding, creating rhombic structures. These nodes act as building blocks for 2D layers and double chains, driven by noncovalent interactions.

Keywords:

crystal engineering four-center nodes halogen bonding noncovalent interactions supramolecular synthons

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Last Updated: Jan 23, 2026

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Constructing Cyclic Peptides Using an On-Tether Sulfonium Center

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Synthesis and Characterization of Supramolecular Colloids

Synthesis and Characterization of Supramolecular Colloids

Published on: April 22, 2016

Area of Science:

Coordination Chemistry
Supramolecular Chemistry
Crystal Engineering

Background:

Metal complexes with isocyanide and nitrile ligands are known for diverse applications.
Halogen bonding is a significant noncovalent interaction in crystal engineering.
Understanding supramolecular assembly in solid-state metal complexes is crucial for materials design.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the solid-state structural motifs of novel isocyanide and nitrile metal complexes.
To identify and characterize the role of halogen bonding in the self-assembly of these complexes.
To explore the nature and strength of the noncovalent interactions involved.

Main Methods:

Single-crystal X-ray diffraction to determine solid-state structures.
Analysis of halogen bonding interactions (Type I and Type II).
Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations to estimate interaction energies.

Main Results:

Isocyanide and nitrile metal complexes exhibit similar structural motifs characterized by four-center nodes.
These nodes are formed by cyclic halogen bonding, including C-X'⋅⋅⋅X-M and M-X⋅⋅⋅X-M interactions, creating rhombic structures.
DFT calculations confirm these interactions are noncovalent with strengths of 0.6–2.9 kcal/mol.

Conclusions:

The identified four-center nodes act as supramolecular synthons for constructing 2D layers or double chains.
Halogen bonding plays a critical role in directing the supramolecular architecture of these metal complexes.
The findings provide insights into the design principles for creating novel supramolecular structures based on metal-ligand interactions and halogen bonding.