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Related Concept Videos

Classical Conditioning01:18

Classical Conditioning

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Associative learning, a core principle in behavioral psychology, involves forming connections between events and facilitating learned responses. This concept is vividly illustrated by classical conditioning, a process extensively studied by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov's pioneering research on dogs' digestive systems led to the discovery that behaviors can be learned through association, laying the groundwork for classical conditioning.
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Principles of Classical Conditioning01:23

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Classical conditioning, as described by Ivan Pavlov, is a foundational concept in associative learning, where a neutral stimulus becomes capable of eliciting a conditioned response through association with an unconditioned stimulus. The process of acquisition, where this learning occurs, and the subsequent phenomena of contiguity, contingency, generalization, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery are crucial for a comprehensive understanding of classical conditioning.
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Classical Conditioning in Daily Life01:17

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Classical conditioning, a fundamental principle of associative learning, explains various phenomena observed in daily life, such as fear development, the placebo effect, taste aversion, and drug habituation. These applications demonstrate the profound impact of associative learning on human behavior and physiological responses.
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Real-World Application of Classical Conditioning01:15

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Classical conditioning not only includes the initial pairing of stimuli but also extends to more complex forms, such as higher-order conditioning. Higher-order conditioning involves creating associations beyond the primary conditioned stimulus, resulting in a chain of conditioned responses.
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Properties of Enantiomers and Optical Activity02:24

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It is essential to understand the difference between chiral and achiral interactions and the implications thereof in optical activity and their applications. Just as our feet, which are chiral, interact uniquely with chiral objects, such as a pair of shoes, but identically with achiral socks, enantiomers of a molecule exhibit different properties only when they interact with other chiral media. An example of a significant implication from this facet is the phenomenon known as optical activity,...
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Imaging Biological Samples with Optical Microscopy01:18

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Optical microscopy uses optic principles to provide detailed images of samples. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek designed the first compound optical microscope in the 17th century to visualize blood cells, bacteria, and yeast cells. In 1830, Joseph Jackson Lister created an essentially modern light microscope. The 20th century saw the development of microscopes with enhanced magnification and resolution.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 22, 2026

Rat Model of Photochemically-Induced Posterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy
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Optic neuropathy in classical methylmalonic acidemia.

Mohammed AlOwain1,2, Ola Ali Khalifa3, Zahra Al Sahlawi4

  • 1Department of Medical Genetics, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre , Riyadh , Saudi Arabia.

Ophthalmic Genetics
|July 5, 2019
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Optic neuropathy is common in classical methylmalonic acidemia (MMA), affecting over half of patients, often without vision symptoms. Regular eye exams are crucial for early detection and management in MMA patients.

Keywords:
Methylmalonic acidemiametabolic acidosismetabolic disordermethylmalonyl-CoAoptic neuropathyvision loss

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Area of Science:

  • Ophthalmology
  • Metabolic Disorders
  • Genetics

Background:

  • Classical methylmalonic acidemia (MMA) can cause late-onset organ dysfunction.
  • Optic neuropathy is a known complication, with 10 cases reported previously.
  • The prevalence of subclinical optic neuropathy in MMA patients remains unclear.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To determine the prevalence of overt and subclinical optic neuropathy in a cohort of classical MMA patients.
  • To identify associations between optic neuropathy and clinical or demographic factors in MMA.

Main Methods:

  • Neuroophthalmic examinations were conducted on 21 patients with classical MMA (age >10 years).
  • Diagnosis of optic neuropathy utilized visual acuity, optic nerve appearance, and electrodiagnostic tests.
  • Data were analyzed for associations using SAS software (p < .05 significance).

Main Results:

  • Eleven of 21 patients (52.4%) had optic neuropathy, frequently bilateral (81.8%).
  • Vision loss was reported in 57.9% of affected patients, while 36.4% were asymptomatic.
  • Optic neuropathy showed a significant association with female gender (p = .011), but not age, nationality, or other comorbidities.

Conclusions:

  • Optic neuropathy is a frequent complication of classical MMA, occurring in over half of patients.
  • Subclinical optic neuropathy is common, highlighting the need for comprehensive ophthalmic evaluations.
  • Early and regular eye assessments are recommended for all MMA patients, irrespective of visual symptoms.