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Related Concept Videos

Virtual Work01:20

Virtual Work

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The principle of virtual work states that if a body is in static and dynamic equilibrium, then the sum of all the virtual work done by all external forces and couple moments for any given virtual displacement must be zero.
In static equilibrium, a body can experience an imaginary or virtual movement, such as displacement or rotation. The virtual work done by a force is equal to the dot product of force and virtual displacement in the direction of the force. When it comes to virtually rotating a...
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Principle of Virtual Work: Problem Solving01:13

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The principle of virtual work is an essential concept in the field of mechanics and engineering. This is used to solve problems related to the equilibrium of a structure or system. It is based on the assumption that if a system is in equilibrium, the work done by all the forces during a virtual displacement is zero. This principle is applied by considering virtual displacements of the system and the corresponding work done by internal and external forces.
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Virtual Work for a System of Connected Rigid Bodies01:06

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Virtual work is a powerful method used to solve problems involving several connected rigid bodies. When the system is in equilibrium, virtual work is zero. This allows the calculation of the resulting forces when a system undergoes a virtual displacement. When attempting to analyze such a system, first, use a free-body diagram, where an independent coordinate represents the configuration of the links, and mark its deflected position resulting from the positive virtual displacement.
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Imaging Studies III: Gastrointestinal Motility Studies and Virtual Colonoscopy01:26

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This lesson explores three gastrointestinal imaging techniques: radionuclide testing, colonic transit studies, and virtual colonoscopy.
Radionuclide Testing
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Keystone Species01:39

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Measures of species biodiversity, such as richness (i.e., the number of species present) and evenness (i.e., their relative abundance), describe an ecological community’s structure. Many factors affect community structure, including abiotic factors (e.g., sunlight and nutrients), disturbances (e.g., fire or flood), species interactions (e.g., predation or competition), and chance events (e.g., foreign species invasion). Certain species—such as keystone species—also play a...
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Malpighian tubules are specialized structures found in the digestive systems of many arthropods, including most insects, that handle excretion and osmoregulation. The tubules are typically arranged in pairs and have a convoluted structure that increases their surface area.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 22, 2026

Measuring Liver Mitochondrial Oxygen Consumption and Proton Leak Kinetics to Estimate Mitochondrial Respiration in Holstein Dairy Cattle
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Does Virtual Fencing Work for Grazing Dairy Cattle?

Sabrina Lomax1, Patricia Colusso2, Cameron E F Clark2

  • 1Livestock Welfare Group, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Camden, NSW 2570, Australia. sabrina.lomax@sydney.edu.au.

Animals : an Open Access Journal From MDPI
|July 11, 2019
PubMed
Summary

Virtual fencing (VF) technology successfully contained cows in Australian dairy pastures 99% of the time. While cows learned the virtual fence stimuli, individual responses varied, potentially impacting animal welfare.

Keywords:
Virtual fenceassociative learningbehaviordairygrazingpaddock usagetechnology

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The Use of Traditional Fear Tests to Evaluate Different Emotional Circuits in Cattle

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Area of Science:

  • Agricultural Science
  • Animal Behaviour
  • Precision Livestock Farming

Background:

  • Traditional dairy pasture management in Australia relies on manual shifting of temporary electric fences.
  • This manual process is labor-intensive and impacts time and cost efficiencies.
  • Virtual fencing (VF) offers a technological alternative to improve pasture management.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To evaluate the learning variability of virtual fence stimuli in dairy cows.
  • To assess the efficacy of automated virtual fence (VF) collars in containing cattle within designated pasture areas.
  • To investigate potential welfare implications associated with VF technology.

Main Methods:

  • Twelve Holstein-Friesian dairy cows were fitted with automated virtual fence (VF) collars.
  • Cows were managed within two grazing allocations (G1 and G2) over six days using a VF system.
  • The VF employed an audio tone (AT) warning followed by an electrical pulse (EP) for non-compliance.

Main Results:

  • The VF system successfully contained cows within predetermined areas for 99% of the observation period.
  • Cows demonstrated learning of the VF stimuli, with a significant reduction in stimulus instances over time (p = 0.01).
  • Significant individual variation in the number of electrical pulses received daily (p < 0.01) was observed, ranging from 1 to 6.5 per day.

Conclusions:

  • Virtual fencing is a highly effective tool for containing cattle in defined pasture areas, reducing manual labor.
  • While cows learn VF cues, individual differences in response and stimulus reception suggest potential welfare concerns that require further investigation.
  • Future research should prioritize understanding and addressing individual variations in VF interaction to ensure animal welfare.