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Related Concept Videos

Hypoglycemia and Glucagon01:15

Hypoglycemia and Glucagon

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Without prolonged fasting, healthy individuals maintain blood glucose levels above 3.5 mM due to a well-adapted neuroendocrine counterregulatory system that effectively prevents acute hypoglycemia, a potentially life-threatening condition. The primary clinical scenarios for hypoglycemia encompass diabetes treatment, inappropriate production of endogenous insulin or insulin-like substances by tumors, and the use of glucose-lowering agents in non-diabetic individuals. Notably, hypoglycemia in the...
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Glucagon-like Receptor Agonists01:24

Glucagon-like Receptor Agonists

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Incretins include glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), which stimulate insulin secretion post-meals. In type 2 diabetes, GIP's efficacy is reduced, making GLP-1 a viable drug target. GIP originates from preproGIP.
GLP-1, when administered in high doses intravenously, triggers insulin secretion, inhibits glucagon release, slows gastric emptying, reduces food intake, and restores normal insulin secretion. However, its rapid inactivation by...
867
SN1 Reaction: Stereochemistry02:15

SN1 Reaction: Stereochemistry

10.2K
This lesson provides an in-depth discussion of the stereochemical outcomes in an SN1 reaction.
In the first step of an SN1 reaction, the bond between the electrophilic carbon and the leaving group ionizes to generate the carbocation intermediate. The second step of the mechanism is the nucleophilic attack.
In the formed carbocation, the positively charged carbon is sp2 hybridized with a trigonal planar geometry. As all the three substituents lie on the same plane, a plane of symmetry for the...
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SN1 Reaction: Kinetics02:05

SN1 Reaction: Kinetics

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In an SN2 reaction, the reaction rate depends on both the type of nucleophile and the substrate. A hindered tertiary alkyl halide is practically inert to the SN2 mechanism despite using a strong nucleophile.
However, Sir Christopher Ingold and Edward D. Hughes, who studied the kinetics of various nucleophilic substitution reactions, noticed that a tertiary alkyl halide does undergo a nucleophilic substitution reaction in the presence of a weak nucleophile. While studying the substitution...
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SN1 Reaction: Mechanism02:25

SN1 Reaction: Mechanism

14.1K
Kinetic studies of ionization of a tertiary halide in a protic solvent suggest that only the substrate participates in the rate-determining step (slow step). The nucleophile is involved only after the slowest step. The SN1 reaction takes place in a multiple-step mechanism. 
Firstly, the haloalkane ionizes to generate a carbocation intermediate and a halide ion. This heterolytic cleavage is highly endothermic with large activation energy. The ionization of the substrate, facilitated by a...
14.1K
Acidity of 1-Alkynes02:42

Acidity of 1-Alkynes

11.1K

The acidic strength of hydrocarbons follows the order: Alkynes > Alkenes > Alkanes. The strength of an acid is commonly expressed in units of pKa — the lower the pKa, the stronger the acid. Among the hydrocarbons, terminal alkynes have lower pKa values and are, therefore, more acidic. For example, the pKa values for ethane, ethene, and acetylene are 51, 44, and 25, respectively, as shown here.
11.1K

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Updated: Jan 21, 2026

Using a Combination of Indirect Calorimetry, Infrared Thermography, and Blood Glucose Levels to Measure Brown Adipose Tissue Thermogenesis in Humans
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Glucagon, GLP-1 and Thermogenesis.

Ismael González-García1, Edward Milbank2,3, Carlos Diéguez2,3

  • 1Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Diabetes Center, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), 85764 Neuherberg, Germany. ismael.gonzalez@helmholtz-muenchen.de.

International Journal of Molecular Sciences
|July 25, 2019
PubMed
Summary

This review explores how glucagon and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) impact brown adipose tissue (BAT) thermogenesis and energy expenditure. Emerging evidence questions glucagon

Keywords:
GLP1brown adipose tissuebrowningglucagonhypothalamic control of energy balancethermogenesis

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Area of Science:

  • Metabolic homeostasis
  • Endocrinology
  • Thermogenesis

Background:

  • Brown adipose tissue (BAT) thermogenesis is crucial for maintaining body temperature and metabolic homeostasis.
  • Glucagon traditionally influences energy balance, satiety, and expenditure, with known direct actions on BAT.
  • Recent findings challenge the established role of glucagon in BAT thermogenesis.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the latest evidence on glucagon's action on BAT thermogenesis.
  • To discuss the role of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in metabolic regulation.
  • To summarize current therapeutic strategies for obesity using glucagon and GLP-1.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of recent scientific findings.
  • Analysis of endocrine and nervous system control of BAT.
  • Examination of therapeutic approaches targeting glucagon and GLP-1 receptors.

Main Results:

  • Glucagon's direct action on BAT thermogenesis is under re-evaluation.
  • GLP-1 significantly reduces feeding and improves metabolic parameters in obesity and diabetes.
  • GLP-1 receptors are a key therapeutic target for metabolic disorders.

Conclusions:

  • The precise role of glucagon in BAT thermogenesis requires further investigation.
  • GLP-1 demonstrates significant potential in managing obesity and related metabolic conditions.
  • Therapeutic targeting of GLP-1 receptors offers a promising avenue for obesity treatment.