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Updated: Jan 21, 2026

A Traditional Chinese Medicine Characteristic Therapy for Bronchial Asthma: Moxibustion
Published on: May 12, 2023
Asthma from immune pathogenesis to precision medicine
Kareem Khalaf1, Giovanni Paoletti2, Francesca Puggioni2
1Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, MI, Italy.
Abstract:
Asthma is characterized by multiple immunological mechanisms (endotypes) determining variable clinical presentations (phenotypes). The identification of endotypic mechanisms is crucial to better characterize patients and to identify tailored therapeutic approaches with novel biological agents targeting specific immunological pathways. This review focused on summarizing the major immunological mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of asthma, as well as on discussing the emergence of phenotypic features of the disease. Novel biological agents and other drugs targeting specific endotypes are discussed, as their use represent a precision medicine approach to the disease that is nowadays mandatory particularly for treating more severe patients.
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Asthma: Pathogenesis and Management
Asthma is classified as allergic and non-allergic. Allergens such as dust mites, pollen, and pet dander trigger allergic asthma, while factors like cold air, intense emotions, or exercise can induce non-allergic asthma.
Asthma-I: Introduction
What is the Immune System?
Asthma-II: Pathophysiology and Classification
Additionally, environmental and genetic factors play crucial roles in determining an individual's susceptibility to asthma and the severity of their condition.
Critical processes in asthma pathophysiology include:
Asthma-III: Symptoms and Complications
Classification of Asthma
Asthma-IV: Diagnostic and Management
Clinical Assessment for Asthma:
This is the first step in diagnosing and managing asthma. It includes:

