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Related Concept Videos

Cross-reactivity00:42

Cross-reactivity

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Overview
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Reactivity of Enols01:18

Reactivity of Enols

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Enols are a class of compounds where a hydroxyl group is attached to a carbon–carbon double bond, which implies that it is a vinyl alcohol. A carbonyl compound with an α hydrogen undergoes keto–enol tautomerism and remains in equilibrium with its tautomer, the enol form. Usually, the keto tautomer is present in a higher concentration than the enol tautomer due to the higher bond energy of C=O compared to C=C. Moreover, the direction of the keto–enol equilibrium is...
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Reactivity of Enolate Ions01:23

Reactivity of Enolate Ions

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Enolate ions are formed by the acid–base reaction of a carbonyl compound with a base. This leads to deprotonation of the α hydrogen atom, leading to a resonance-stabilized enolate ion where one of the contributing structures is an oxyanion, which imparts additional stability. Therefore, the proton on the α carbon is more acidic in nature than that of other sp3-hybridized C–H bonds but less acidic than those in O–H bonds where the negative charge in the conjugate...
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Radical Reactivity: Overview01:11

Radical Reactivity: Overview

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Radicals, the highly reactive species, gain stability by undergoing three different reactions. The first reaction involves a radical-radical coupling, in which a radical combines with another radical, forming a spin‐paired molecule. The second reaction is between a radical and a spin‐paired molecule, generating a new radical and a new spin‐paired molecule. The third reaction is radical decomposition in a unimolecular reaction, forming a new radical and a spin‐paired...
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Radical Reactivity: Nucleophilic Radicals01:16

Radical Reactivity: Nucleophilic Radicals

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Radicals adjacent to electron-donating groups are called nucleophilic radicals. These radicals readily react with electrophilic alkenes. The SOMO–LUMO interactions are the driving force for the reaction, where the high-energy SOMO of the electron-rich, nucleophilic radicals interacts with the low-energy LUMO of the electron-deficient, electrophilic alkenes. Such SOMO–LUMO interactions are the basis of reactive radical traps, affecting the selectivity in radical reactions. For...
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Radical Reactivity: Intramolecular vs Intermolecular01:33

Radical Reactivity: Intramolecular vs Intermolecular

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Radical reactions can occur either intermolecularly or intramolecularly. In an intermolecular radical reaction, a nucleophilic radical adds to an electrophilic alkene or vice versa. In such reactions, the radical and generally the alkene, which is also called the radical trap, are two different molecules. Additionally, for such intermolecular reactions to occur, the radical trap must be active, present in an excess concentration, and the radical starting material must have a weak...
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Related Experiment Video

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Author Spotlight: Microglia Research on Spinal Cord Heterogeneity and Purification
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Microglia Reactivity: Heterogeneous Pathological Phenotypes.

Hélène Hirbec1, François Rassendren2, Etienne Audinat3

  • 1IGF, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, INSERM, Montpellier, France. helene.hirbec@igf.cnrs.fr.

Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J.)
|August 9, 2019
PubMed
Summary

Microglia, the brain's immune cells, exhibit dynamic plasticity, challenging the old "resting" vs. "activated" model. Recent advances reveal their versatile reactivity in both health and disease.

Keywords:
Brain macrophageImmune responseInflammationMicroglial activationMicroglial reactivityNeurodegeneration

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Immunology
  • Cell Biology

Background:

  • Pío del Río-Hortega first described microglia's dynamic capabilities a century ago.
  • Classical models viewed microglia as either "resting" or "activated."
  • Recent technological advancements have enabled deeper investigation into microglial behavior.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the methods and findings that have uncovered microglial dynamics.
  • To highlight the plasticity and versatility of microglial reactivity.
  • To update the understanding of microglial function in the central nervous system (CNS).

Main Methods:

  • Development of new transgenic animal models.
  • Advanced molecular and functional analysis techniques.
  • In situ phenotyping of microglia.

Main Results:

  • Demonstrated the real-time plasticity of microglia.
  • Challenged and superseded the classical two-state model of microglia.
  • Revealed the exquisite reactivity of microglia to CNS changes.

Conclusions:

  • Microglia possess remarkable dynamic and plastic capabilities.
  • Microglial function is highly versatile and reactive in both physiological and pathological CNS conditions.
  • Current understanding emphasizes microglial adaptability over static states.