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Muscles of the Shoulder01:23

Muscles of the Shoulder

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The muscles surrounding the shoulder girdle, including the clavicle and scapula, primarily stabilize the scapula. This stable base allows other muscles to move the humerus effectively. Scapular movements often mirror those of the humerus and extend its range of motion. For instance, raising the arm above the head would not be feasible without simultaneous upward rotation of the scapula.
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Translation01:31

Translation

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Lesson: Translation
Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes the final step in the expression of genes. This process is carried out by ribosomes, complexes of protein and specialized RNA molecules. Ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and other proteins produce a chain of amino acids—the polypeptide—as the end product of translation.
Translation Produces the Building Blocks of...
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Translation01:31

Translation

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Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes the final step in the expression of genes. This process is carried out by ribosomes, complexes of protein and specialized RNA molecules. Ribosomes, transfer RNA (tRNA), and other proteins produce a chain of amino acids—the polypeptide—as the end product of translation.
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Proteins are...
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Initiation of Translation02:33

Initiation of Translation

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Initiating translation is complex because it involves multiple molecules. Initiator tRNA, ribosomal subunits, and eukaryotic initiation factors (eIFs) are all required to assemble on the initiation codon of mRNA. This process consists of several steps that are mediated by different eIFs.
First, the initiator tRNA must be selected from the pool of elongator tRNAs by eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2). The initiator tRNA (Met-tRNAi) has conserved sequence elements including modified bases at...
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Termination of Translation01:44

Termination of Translation

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The large ribosomal subunit has several important structures essential to translation. These include the peptidyl transferase center (PTC) - which is the site where the peptide bond is formed - and a large, internal, water-filled tube through which the nascent polypeptide moves. This latter structure is called the Peptide Exit Tunnel, and it begins at the PTC and spans the body of the large ribosomal subunit. During translation, as the nascent polypeptide chain is synthesized, it passes through...
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Improving Translational Accuracy02:07

Improving Translational Accuracy

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Base complementarity between the three base pairs of mRNA codon and the tRNA anticodon is not a failsafe mechanism. Inaccuracies can range from a single mismatch to no correct base pairing at all. The free energy difference between the correct and nearly correct base pairs can be as small as 3 kcal/ mol. With complementarity being the only proofreading step, the estimated error frequency would be one wrong amino acid in every 100 amino acids incorporated. However, error frequencies observed in...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 21, 2026

An Instrumented Pull Test to Characterize Postural Responses
12:18

An Instrumented Pull Test to Characterize Postural Responses

Published on: April 6, 2019

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Stepping threshold with platform-translation and shoulder-pull postural perturbation methods.

Dmitry Verniba1, William H Gage1

  • 1School of Kinesiology & Health Science, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada.

Journal of Biomechanics
|August 10, 2019
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

This study found an inverse linear relationship between force and displacement for eliciting stepping balance recovery. A common perturbation threshold was identified for comparing different balance perturbation methods.

Keywords:
Balance recoveryChange-in-support thresholdPostural controlReactive stepping

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Area of Science:

  • Biomechanics
  • Human Movement Science
  • Motor Control

Background:

  • Balance recovery strategies (feet-in-place vs. stepping) depend on perturbation intensity (force and displacement).
  • Limited research exists on the specific perturbation characteristics needed for stepping responses across different postural perturbation methods.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the relationship between perturbation force and displacement for eliciting forward stepping responses.
  • To determine if common perturbation characteristics exist for platform-translation and shoulder-pull methods.

Main Methods:

  • Fourteen healthy young males participated in the study.
  • Unexpected platform translations and shoulder pulls were induced using a free-weight drop system.
  • Force and displacement were systematically varied to identify thresholds for stepping responses, normalized to body weight (BW) and base of support (BOS).

Main Results:

  • An inverse linear relationship was observed between the minimum force and displacement required to elicit stepping responses for both perturbation methods.
  • A common force-displacement combination of 8.75%BW and 105%BOS was identified as the minimum threshold for eliciting stepping responses across both methods.

Conclusions:

  • The findings establish a quantifiable relationship between perturbation characteristics and stepping balance recovery.
  • The identified common perturbation threshold allows for more direct comparisons of neuromuscular and biomechanical responses across different perturbation techniques.