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Updated: Jan 20, 2026

Milk Collection in the Rat Using Capillary Tubes and Estimation of Milk Fat Content by Creamatocrit
Published on: December 16, 2015
Maternal body mass index, parity and smoking are associated with human milk macronutrient content after preterm
Iva Burianova1, Jiri Bronsky2, Marketa Pavlikova3
1Department of Neonatology, Thomayer Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic.
Background:
Maternal characteristics may be associated with human milk macronutrients but no definite conclusions have been made to date.
Aim:
This study aimed to determine the relationship of maternal-associated factors on the content of macronutrients in human milk for the first six weeks after preterm delivery.
Study Design:
Prospective observational cohort study.
Subjects:
Milk samples were collected from mothers after premature birth between 24 + 0-35 + 6 weeks.
Outcome Measures:
Macronutrients and energy content were analyzed by mid-infrared transmission spectroscopy. Demographic and anthropometric data from mothers were systematically recorded.
Results:
A total 1.558 human milk samples from 192 mothers were analyzed. Colostrum: higher protein (p = 0.001) and lower carbohydrate content (p = 0.003) were present in primiparous compared to multiparous milk. Vaginal birth was associated with increased carbohydrate content (p = 0.021). Fat and energy content in colostrum was not related to any maternal characteristics. Mature human milk: similarly to colostrum, higher protein content (p = 0.001) and lower carbohydrates content (p = 0.022) were observed in primiparous compared to multiparous milk. The mode of delivery was found to be another factor possibly influencing protein and carbohydrate levels (p = 0.036, p = 0.003, respectively). Pre-pregnancy obesity was associated with increased fat (p = 0.030) and energy content (p = 0.020) in human milk. On the contrary, smoking had a negative relationship to fat and energy content (p = 0.026, p = 0.007, respectively).
Conclusion:
Human milk macronutrient concentration after preterm delivery is associated with pre-pregnancy obesity, parity, mode of delivery and smoking. The impact of maternal factors on human milk composition should be taken into account in a strategy of feeding in premature infants.
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