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Plastic deformation represents a fundamental concept in materials science, which explains the irreversible change in the shape of a material when it experiences stress beyond its elastic capability. This phenomenon is important in structural engineering, especially in designing and analyzing cantilever beams—structures that are securely fixed at one end and bear loads at the opposite end. When these beams are subjected to loads within their elastic range, they will return to their...
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It is essential to understand how structural members behave under plastic deformation when the bending stress exceeds the material's yield strength. This state of deformation permanently alters the shape of the member, in contrast to the linear elastic behavior observed before yielding. The strain at any point in the member is expressed in terms of maximum strain. Notably, the neutral axis, which coincides with the centroid during elastic bending, shifts away from the centroid under plastic...
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When materials are subjected to forces that surpass their yield strength, they undergo a process known as plastic deformation. This results in a permanent alteration or strain in their structure. This concept can be specifically applied to circular shafts, where the deformation leads to a change in its shape. The precise evaluation of this plastic deformation requires understanding the stress distribution within the circular shaft, which is achieved by calculating the maximum shearing stress in...
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When a structural member undergoes plastic deformation due to bending, it is crucial to understand the position of the neutral axis and the stress distribution. This member, characterized by a single plane of symmetry, exhibits a uniform stress distribution, with negative stress above the neutral axis and positive stress below. Notably, the neutral axis does not align with the centroid of the cross-section. This misalignment is typical in cases where the cross-section is not rectangular or...
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Updated: Jan 20, 2026

Imaging Cell Viability on Non-transparent Scaffolds — Using the Example of a Novel Knitted Titanium Implant
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Functionally graded titanium implants: Characteristic enhancement induced by combined severe plastic deformation.

Shokouh Attarilar1, Mohamad Taghi Salehi1, Khaled J Al-Fadhalah2

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This study developed gradient titanium for implants using equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) and surface mechanical attrition treatment (SMAT). The combined methods created a nanostructured surface with enhanced properties and improved cell response.

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Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Biomaterials Engineering
  • Surface Engineering

Background:

  • Commercially pure titanium is a key material for medical implants.
  • Achieving functionally graded materials with tailored surface properties is crucial for implant performance.
  • Existing processing methods may not fully optimize the gradient structure for enhanced biological integration.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop a functionally graded titanium material with a gradient structure for enhanced implant applications.
  • To combine equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) and surface mechanical attrition treatment (SMAT) to create ultrafine-grained bulk and nanostructured surface regions.
  • To evaluate the microstructural, mechanical, surface, and biological properties of the processed titanium.

Main Methods:

  • Commercially pure titanium was processed using four passes of equal channel angular pressing (ECAP).
  • The ECAPed samples were further treated with surface mechanical attrition treatment (SMAT).
  • Microstructural analysis (EBSD), mechanical testing (microhardness, nanoindentation), surface characterization (topography, roughness, wettability), and in-vitro biological evaluation (cell culture, viability, differentiation) were performed.

Main Results:

  • ECAP resulted in an ultrafine-grained structure with an average grain size of 500 nm.
  • SMAT further refined the microstructure, creating a nanostructured surface layer up to 112 μm deep.
  • The combined ECAP and SMAT processing enhanced surface roughness, wettability, and hardness.
  • Cell viability increased by up to 7% in SMATed + ECAPed samples, with improved cell adhesion, differentiation, and mineralization.

Conclusions:

  • The synergistic application of ECAP and SMAT effectively produces a functionally graded titanium with a gradient structure.
  • This processing approach optimizes mechanical and surface properties, leading to enhanced biological responses.
  • The developed gradient titanium shows significant potential for advanced medical devices and implants.