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Tumor Immunotherapy

Tumor Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is a treatment that boosts or manipulates the immune system to fight diseases, including cancer. For instance, by stimulating an immune response through vaccinations against viruses that cause cancers, like hepatitis B virus and human papillomavirus, these diseases can be prevented. Nonetheless, some cancer cells can avoid the immune system due to their rapid mutation and division. The immune response to many cancers involves three phases: elimination, equilibrium, and escape.

SN1 Reaction: Stereochemistry

S_N1 Reaction: Stereochemistry

This lesson provides an in-depth discussion of the stereochemical outcomes in an SN1 reaction.
In the first step of an SN1 reaction, the bond between the electrophilic carbon and the leaving group ionizes to generate the carbocation intermediate. The second step of the mechanism is the nucleophilic attack.
In the formed carbocation, the positively charged carbon is sp2 hybridized with a trigonal planar geometry. As all the three substituents lie on the same plane, a plane of symmetry for the...

SN1 Reaction: Kinetics

S_N1 Reaction: Kinetics

In an SN2 reaction, the reaction rate depends on both the type of nucleophile and the substrate. A hindered tertiary alkyl halide is practically inert to the SN2 mechanism despite using a strong nucleophile.
However, Sir Christopher Ingold and Edward D. Hughes, who studied the kinetics of various nucleophilic substitution reactions, noticed that a tertiary alkyl halide does undergo a nucleophilic substitution reaction in the presence of a weak nucleophile. While studying the substitution...

SN1 Reaction: Mechanism

S_N1 Reaction: Mechanism

Kinetic studies of ionization of a tertiary halide in a protic solvent suggest that only the substrate participates in the rate-determining step (slow step). The nucleophile is involved only after the slowest step. The SN1 reaction takes place in a multiple-step mechanism.
Firstly, the haloalkane ionizes to generate a carbocation intermediate and a halide ion. This heterolytic cleavage is highly endothermic with large activation energy. The ionization of the substrate, facilitated by a...

Acidity of 1-Alkynes

Acidity of 1-Alkynes

The acidic strength of hydrocarbons follows the order: Alkynes > Alkenes > Alkanes. The strength of an acid is commonly expressed in units of pKa — the lower the pKa, the stronger the acid. Among the hydrocarbons, terminal alkynes have lower pKa values and are, therefore, more acidic. For example, the pKa values for ethane, ethene, and acetylene are 51, 44, and 25, respectively, as shown here.

Predicting Products: SN1 vs. SN2

Predicting Products: S_N1 vs. S_N2

Nucleophilic substitution reactions of alkyl halides can proceed via an SN1 or an SN2 mechanism. While in SN2 reactions, the nucleophile attacks the substrate simultaneously as the leaving group departs, in SN1 reactions, the substrate first dissociates to give the carbocation intermediate. Various factors such as the structure of the substrate, the strength of the nucleophile, and the nature of the solvent promote one mechanism over the other.
With increased substitution on the alkyl halide,...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 20, 2026

Manufacturing Chimeric Antigen Receptor CAR T Cells for Adoptive Immunotherapy

Manufacturing Chimeric Antigen Receptor CAR T Cells for Adoptive Immunotherapy

Published on: December 17, 2019

Targeting B7-1 in immunotherapy.

Rui Chen¹, Aravindhan Ganesan¹, Isobel Okoye²

¹Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

Medicinal Research Reviews

|August 27, 2019

Summary

Targeting B7-1 immune checkpoints with monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) offers innovative immunotherapy. Modulating B7-1 shows therapeutic benefits for cancer and autoimmunity by balancing T-cell activation and suppression.

Keywords:

CD28 CTLA-4 autoimmunity immune checkpoints immunotherapy

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Manufacturing Chimeric Antigen Receptor CAR T Cells for Adoptive Immunotherapy

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Sublingual Immunotherapy as an Alternative to Induce Protection Against Acute Respiratory Infections

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Experimental Metastasis and CTL Adoptive Transfer Immunotherapy Mouse Model

Experimental Metastasis and CTL Adoptive Transfer Immunotherapy Mouse Model

Published on: November 26, 2010

Area of Science:

Immunology
Immunotherapy
Molecular Biology

Background:

T-cell immune functions are regulated by immune checkpoint proteins at the immunological synapse.
B7 ligands (B7-1/CD80 and B7-2/CD86) on antigen-presenting cells interact with T-cell receptors CD28 and CTLA-4.
These interactions balance T-cell activation (via CD28) and suppression (via CTLA-4), maintaining immune homeostasis and preventing pathology.

Purpose of the Study:

To review the essential roles of B7-1 in immune regulation.
To highlight the therapeutic benefits of modulating B7-1 in immunotherapy for cancer and autoimmunity.
To discuss current and emerging strategies for developing anti-B7-1 inhibitors.

Main Methods:

Review of existing literature on B7-1 function and therapeutic targeting.
Analysis of immune checkpoint modulation strategies using monoclonal antibodies (mAbs).
Discussion of challenges and future directions in selective B7-1 inhibitor design.

Main Results:

B7-1 plays a crucial role in T-cell costimulation and suppression.
Targeting B7-1 is a promising strategy for cancer immunotherapy and treating autoimmune diseases.
Various approaches to developing anti-B7-1 inhibitors have been explored.

Conclusions:

Modulating B7-1 interactions offers significant therapeutic potential in immunotherapy.
Selective inhibition of B7-1 presents challenges but holds promise for future treatments.
Further research into selective B7-1 inhibitors is warranted for advancing cancer and autoimmunity treatments.