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Updated: Jan 20, 2026

Multimodal 3D Printing of Phantoms to Simulate Biological Tissue
Published on: January 11, 2020
Cerebral oximetry performance testing with a 3D-printed vascular array phantom
Ali Afshari1, Pejman Ghassemi1, Jonathan Lin1
1Center for Devices and Radiological Health, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, Maryland 20993, USA.
Abstract:
Cerebral oximetry based on near-infrared spectroscopy represents a unique noninvasive tool for real-time surgical monitoring, yet studies have shown a significant discrepancy in accuracy among commercial systems. Towards the establishment of a standardized method for performance testing, we have studied a solid phantom approach - based on a 3D-printed cerebrovascular module (CVM) incorporating an array of 148 cylindrical channels - that has several advantages over liquid phantoms. Development and characterization of a CVM prototype are described, including high-resolution imaging and spectrophotometry measurements. The CVM was filled with whole bovine blood tuned over an oxygen saturation range of 30-90% and molded-silicone layers simulating extracerebral tissues were used to evaluate penetration depth. Saturation measurement accuracy was assessed in two commercially-available clinical cerebral oximeters. For one oximeter, both neonatal and pediatric sensors showed a high degree of precision, whereas accuracy was strongly dependent on saturation level and extracerebral geometry. The second oximeter showed worse precision, yet greater robustness to variations in extracerebral layers. These results indicate that 3D-printed channel array phantoms represent a promising new approach for standardized testing of clinical oximeters.
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