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Confirmation Biases

Confirmation Biases

The confirmation bias is the tendency to focus on information that confirms our existing beliefs and ignore information that is inconsistent with our expectations. For example, if you think that your professor is not very nice, you notice all of the instances of rude behavior exhibited by the professor while ignoring the countless pleasant interactions he is involved in on a daily basis. Have you ever fallen prey to the confirmation bias, either as the source or target of such bias?

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Hindsight Biases

Hindsight bias leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t. In other words, you knew all along that things would turn out the way they did. Can you relate this to the phrase "Hindsight is 20/20" now?

Bias

Bias

Bias refers to any tendency that prevents a question from being considered unprejudiced. In research, bias occurs when one outcome or answer is selected or encouraged over others in sampling or testing. Bias can occur during any research phase, including study design, data collection, analysis, and publication.
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Theoretical Approaches to Psychological Disorder

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 19, 2026

Confirmation Biases: Effect on Judgement

Confirmation Biases: Effect on Judgement

Causes of reporting bias: a theoretical framework.

Jenny T van der Steen^1,2, Gerben Ter Riet^3,4, Cornelis A van den Bogert⁵

¹Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Leiden University Medical Center, Hippocratespad 21, Gebouw 3, Leiden, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands.

|September 12, 2019

Summary

Selective reporting bias threatens research validity. A new theoretical framework identifies motivations and flexible study designs as necessary causes, influenced by conflicts and societal pressures, to mitigate this bias.

Keywords:

Causality publication bias questionable research practice reporting bias research design selective reporting

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Published on: September 5, 2014

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Last Updated: Jan 19, 2026

Confirmation Biases: Effect on Judgement

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Hindsight Biases: Definition and Examples

Hindsight Biases: Definition and Examples

Synthesis and Characterization of Functionalized Metal-organic Frameworks

Synthesis and Characterization of Functionalized Metal-organic Frameworks

Published on: September 5, 2014

Area of Science:

Research Integrity
Scientific Publishing
Biostatistics

Background:

Selective reporting of research findings compromises the integrity of the scientific literature.
Understanding the causes of reporting bias is crucial for developing effective mitigation strategies.

Purpose of the Study:

To present a theoretical framework detailing the causal pathways leading to selective reporting bias.
To guide future research and raise awareness among researchers and research consumers regarding reporting bias.

Main Methods:

Development of a theoretical framework based on a systematic review of selective reporting determinants.
Classification of causal factors into necessary and component causes.

Main Results:

Identified four clusters of causes: motivations (necessary), means (necessary), conflicts of interest (component), and societal/scientific pressures (component).
Motivations and means, when present together, are sufficient causes for reporting bias.
Component causes can modify the effect of necessary causes or act as mediators.

Conclusions:

The proposed framework provides a structured understanding of reporting bias.
Highlights the interplay between individual/team factors and external pressures in driving biased reporting.
Emphasizes the need for awareness and further research to combat reporting bias effectively.