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Updated: Jan 19, 2026

Employing Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in a Resource Limited Environment to Establish Brain-Behavior Relationships

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Published on: April 20, 2022

The Complex Relationships between Sex and the Brain.

Daphna Joel¹, Alicia Garcia-Falgueras², Dick Swaab²

¹School of Psychological Sciences and Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.

The Neuroscientist : a Review Journal Bringing Neurobiology, Neurology and Psychiatry

|September 12, 2019

Summary

Mammalian brain sexual differentiation is complex, influenced by genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors. The mosaic hypothesis suggests individual brain features vary in "maleness" or "femaleness," requiring multi-feature analysis for deeper understanding.

Keywords:

gender differences intermediate nucleus sex differences sexual differentiation sexually dimorphic nucleus transgender

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Sex Differences in Mouse Hippocampal Astrocytes after In-Vitro Ischemia

Sex Differences in Mouse Hippocampal Astrocytes after In-Vitro Ischemia

Published on: October 25, 2016

Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Developmental Biology
Endocrinology

Background:

The traditional view of testosterone solely masculinizing the male brain is outdated.
Current understanding recognizes complex interactions of genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors in sex differentiation.
This complexity supports the "mosaic" hypothesis of brain sexual differentiation.

Purpose of the Study:

To review animal data on brain sexual differentiation.
To present human brain imaging (MRI) and postmortem data analyses.
To discuss the mosaic hypothesis, its controversies, and research implications.

Main Methods:

Review of existing animal studies on sexual differentiation.
Co-analysis of human brain measures from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and postmortem studies.
Critical discussion of the mosaic hypothesis and its implications.

Main Results:

Animal data established a complex basis for sexual differentiation.
Human brain co-analyses reveal variability in sex-specific features.
The mosaic hypothesis posits significant individual variation in brain "maleness"/"femaleness".

Conclusions:

Understanding sex differences in the brain requires analyzing multiple features simultaneously.
Moving from group-level to individual-level analysis is crucial.
This approach will advance knowledge of sex-brain relationships in health and disease.